Winchesters Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017 A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses

Introduction Cities are not only increasingly competing to host international cultural events to improve their image and stimulate urban infrastructural development, but also to revitalize their economies and attract more visitors and investment. This phenomenon can be associated with the effects of a globalized world economy (Hede Kellett, 2011), as well as a general increase in competition between cities, regions and countries for the attention of noteworthy stakeholders, including customers, investors and policy makers (Richards Wilson, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Winchester’s Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017: A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Available literature demonstrates that since the 1980s, a rising number of cities are becoming interested in attracting major international events as they are perceived as valuable vect ors of economic and tourism development, as well as ensuring sustainable development by stimulating ecological, social and economic benefits Proposal Aim Objectives As parts of its events-led regeneration strategy, Winchester City aims to successfully bid for the rights to co-host the 7th World Summit on Arts and Culture coming up in 2017. The objectives are to attract more visitors and to arouse cultural consumption among the population, while positioning Winchester City as a global tourist and cultural destination Overview/Background Information The World Summit on Arts and Culture The World Summit on Arts and Culture is a triennial international event of its kind, which serves as â€Å"†¦a platform for national arts councils, ministries of culture, arts and cultural policy decision makers, artists and community leaders to discuss strategies affecting public support for arts and culture at a national and global level† (IFACCA, 2011a para. 2). Members and affiliates of International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (IFACCA) are encouraged to participate and the conventions are open to any individual with an interest in national and international artistic and cultural trajectories. This mega-event, co-hosted by the national arts council of the winning country and IFACCA, attracts an estimated 500 delegates from over 80 countries into the hosting city for a period ranging from 4-5 days to discuss the issues at hand (IFACCA, 2011b). International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies Inaugurated in December 2000, the International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (IFACCA) owns the right to co-host the World Summit on Arts and Culture with the National Arts Council of any member country that has succeeded to bid for the rights to hold the event. This implies that IFACCA is the event owner and one of its core responsibilities is to invite the national councils of member countries to submit bidding documents/p roposals to host the event. IFACCA is also responsible for determining a set process for bidding and the schedule and time-frame by which the bidding process should be completed.Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Bidding City: Winchester Winchester, England, is a vivacious â€Å"†¦heritage destination just an hour south west of London, with world class attractions and architecture including a magnificent cathedral, award-winning pubs and restaurants and a tempting array of independent shops† (Winchester City Council, 2012 para. 1). Winchester is the perfect destination for hosting international cultural events and Expos due to its rich culturally-diverse medieval settings, surrounded by magnificent rolling countryside and tranquil Hampshire villages. The city has a resident population of about 45,000 people, and is home to â€Å"†¦a number of large public sector employers, including the University of Winchester, Winchester Prison, Royal Hampshire County Hospital, Hampshire County Council and Winchester City Council† (Hampshire County Council, 2011 p. 7). Analysis of the Internal Strengths Weaknesses of the Summit This section aims to critically evaluate the internal factors to the global summit, which could heavily influence the trajectory and outcome of the bidding process, particularly in relation to the focussed attempt by Winchester to bid for the rights to host the 2017 summit. Strengths This international artistic and cultural event â€Å"†¦provides opportunities for attendees to have memorable experiences, communities to build social capital, and for the governments to induce new income into their economies through tourism and business activities† (Hede Kellett, 2011 p. 987). The summit is known to provide a sense of flexibility to fixed structures, as well as delivering a source of spectacle which adds to the ima ge value and reputation of cities. In particular, this summit often embodies a less costly means of distinguishing places, encourage people to visit a place more than once, and produce substantial media interest that could be used by the event organizers to market the city through the prism of internationalization or globalization (Richards Wilson, 2004; Leonardsen et al, 2010). Weaknesses The global summit, as is the case with other international mega-events, has its own risks, which must be critically evaluated and contingency plans drawn to ensure successful hosting of the event. Among the inherent risks noted in hosting an event of this nature and scope, the event organizers may fail to secure the required funding to deliver the summit, not mentioning that that the organizers may also fail to engage the local population, resulting in a scenario where the event is incapable of attracting a wider audience (Schneider, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Winchester’s Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017: A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Being a global artistic and cultural outreach program, the summit is always faced with the risks associated with poor artistic programming, failure to attract headline performers and artists and, consequently, failure to secure the Summit’s intended legacy. Lastly, it is well known that international cultural events often fail to attract the political support necessary to make the hosting of these events a success (Schneider, 2010). Effective contingency plans must therefore be available to ensure these risks are successfully dealt with. External Analyses of the Bidding City There are a number of predominant external factors which could unequivocally influence Winchester City’s bid to be accorded the rights to host the upcoming summit. This section aims to utilize a numb er of strategic planning tools, including PESTLE, SWOT and Porter’s 5 Forces analyses, to critically evaluate Winchester’s position to competitively bid for, and host, the summit in 2017. PESTLE Analysis Bidding cities have their own weaknesses and strengths that intrinsically influence the current and future performance of their bidding processes. By employing the PESTLE framework, the event organizers for the 2017 bid are able to effectively assess the current environment, as well as future shifts in the environment that are bound to predominantly influence Winchester’s attempt to successfully bid for, and host, the 2017 event. It is widely expected that the adoption of the PESTLE framework, which details the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors affecting or influencing an entity (Henry, 2008), will go a long way to assist Winchester maintain a competitive advantage over other candidate cities for the upcoming summit. Con sequently, the results of the PESTLE analysis are presented below in an attempt to underline the external factors influencing Winchester’s bid. Political The government is unswerving in its resolve to ensure that the United Kingdom (UK) is in a position to aggressively bid for, and host, major international sporting and cultural events, not mentioning that it acknowledges the fact that bids are reinforced if the government is ready and willing to lend active support. The ultimate event organizer, which is the UK Art and Culture Council, is likely to continue to maintain a powerful control over the global artistic and cultural scene, with more centralized sponsorship and media deals, which in many instances translate into valuable income streams for the Council. Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 summit also draws considerable support from the UK’s strong reputation to successfully bid and host major international events such as the Capital of Culture event held i n 2008 in Liverpool. Lastly, Winchester enjoys strong public/private partnerships, which will continue to play a substantial role in the planning and funding of national, regional and international events (Leonardsen, 2007; Maughan Branchini, 2004).Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A constraint to Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 summit comes in the form of a shifting focus of central government funding, which will persist to generate an uncertainty in relation to public funding trajectories, particularly in relation to community and cultural-oriented activities funded by the public purse (Jackson, 2010). Economic Hosting the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture will trigger an increase in tourism and investment in the UK in general and Winchester in particular. Such an increase will continue to form a critical component in the revenue generation of the city and the wider local economy. By bidding to host the 2017 summit, Winchester is setting out on a journey of unprecedented economic and infrastructural regeneration in which art and culture will be used to purposefully transform a city with a rich cultural history. This event is also likely to stimulate the globalization of culture and access of British artistic and cultural artefacts and presentati ons to international markets. Additionally, the interaction between the delegates attending the summit and local businesses is likely to spur economic growth in terms of food purchases, accommodation, conference services and investment opportunities (Westerbeek et al, 2002; Maughan Branchini, 2004). This interaction is also likely to elevate the image and reputation of the city to international visitors and investors. The current global economic climate, however, presents a constraint to Winchester’s bid to successfully bid and host the 2017 event, in large part because the trend continues to restrict the growth and expansion of many artistic and cultural activities due to a noted reduction in leisure spending as the UK and international economy continues to contract (Jackson, 2010). Social The UK’s population has being ageing, and research demonstrates that the elderly identifies more with artistic and cultural events than the youth, who are passionately interested i n sporting events (Schneider, 2010). This observation creates a ready audience to consume the summit should the event owners grant the rights to host the 2017 summit to Winchester due to the leisure interests of the ageing population. Winchester city has a long tradition of a being a world heritage site, thus it can be positively argued that the attitudes and values of the local population are aligned to the importance of preserving culture and various art forms, as well as employing culture to achieve local and national development targets (Schneider, 2010). The attitudes of the local population regarding culture and art imply that the global event will have a ready audience. These characteristics are likely to add fire to the event, opening up new possibilities and opportunities for the hosting city, particularly in relation to occasioning more tangible and intangible benefits, as well as raising local confidence and self-belief and promoting connectivity, partnership and a superf icial-facing focus. However, the bidding team takes cognizance of the fact that it must prepare mitigating measures to tackle the rising number of security threats, particularly the threats posed by international terrorist networks against Western targets. The ageing population may also lack disposable income to attend such events due to the fact that they are no longer in active employment. Technological Winchester City boasts of modern state-of-the-art conference and convention facilities, with ready broadband internet access portals, digitals TVs, telephone portals and other value additions intended to make the living experience in these facilities memorable. It is home to renowned world class universities such as the University of Winchester, implying that research, development and innovation are some of the critical assets held by the city. Greater exploitation of these critical assets is likely to significantly benefit the hosting of the event, particularly in relation to cont ent development, enhanced accessibility, communications and marketing. Additionally, Winchester County Council, in conjunction with institutions of higher learning and other public institutions, has embarked on an ambitious program to introduce new media technologies. It is of substantial interest to note that the continued access to and investment in these modern media technologies with the aim to reduce operational costs, improve quality of life, and stimulate more innovative concepts (Leonardsen, 2007). Legal The current government legislations relating to hosting of international sports and cultural events demands that event organizers efficiently utilize resources, minimize waste and desecration of vital assets, and effectively respond to underlying issues in climate change. Particularly, the event organizers are obliged by various British statutes and Winchester City bylaws to, among other tings, reduce carbon emissions while hosting an international event using a range of mea sures, such as green travel plans, energy saving strategies, waste and noise reduction, sustainable consumption patterns and exploring the alternatives available to use renewable energy (Richards Wilson, 2004). The main constraints to these legal requirements, however, are lack of awareness of the issues and statutes relating to climate change, potential costs implications involved in implementing the directives, and the absence of a way that could be used by the event organizers to recoup the tangible and intangible resources used on these initiatives. Environmental Winchester in particular and the UK in general have stable weather patterns, making the hosting of such a global event a reality. Most conference and convention facilities located in Winchester are energy-efficient, implying that the event organizers will not incur further costs related to a lack of technical capabilities of the hosting venues. However, the current global environmental outlook, characterized by such ph enomena as global warming and pollution, will ultimately trigger a move towards more environmentally friendly products and processes – a move that may lessen the bidding city’s economic and social regeneration consequential to development due to short-term costs related to providing environmentally friendly products and processes for the delegates and audience attending the event (Martins Sera, 2011). SWOT Analysis Strategic management research demonstrates that â€Å"†¦the use of SWOT analysis allows organizations to maximize their strengths, minimize their weaknesses, take advantage of their opportunities and overcome their weaknesses† (Fine, 2009 p. 3). This section aims to analyse the opportunities and threats (external factors) influencing the success of Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. Opportunities for Winchester The success of Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 international artistic and cultural even t will be intrinsically influenced by the city’s innovative funding models, which necessitate the attainment of synergies and competitive leverage between the public and public sectors. A good example includes a cross subsidy between major supermarket chains operating in the area and Winchester County Council to fund new infrastructure expansion programs. Second, there exist a strong desire and willingness for major stakeholders to network and partner to make the dream of hosting the 2017 event a reality. Networking, partnership and sharing best practices is overwhelmingly perceived as an opportunity by the event organizers and conference facility owners, particularly in the light of ensuring that those who will participate in the event will have a memorable experience. Third, the organizing committee is of the view that the hosting of this event in Winchester will act as a significant income generator, while ensuring the city achieves national and international exposure (Leo nardsen, 2007). Lastly, there exist a real opportunity for the local population and delegates to facilitate and promote knowledge transfer by encouraging information sharing for the benefits of entrenching a lasting legacy for Winchester, particularly as a renowned heritage site. Threats for Winchester There has been ongoing speculation about a decline in public sector funding for the hosting of such events, mainly because of the current political and economic climate, as well as the channelling of investments elsewhere (Jackson, 2010). This speculation has occasioned increased risk and uncertainty, particularly in relation to the issue of outlining funding decisions, and may impact negatively on the event organizers’ capacity to access finance from banks and other lending institutions for specific projects and developments. Additionally, the widespread recognition by the international audience that the UK’s economy is on a downturn may impact negatively on Winchesterà ¢â‚¬â„¢s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. Indeed, the current economic recession may translate into lost sponsorship deals for upcoming major international events. Porter’s 5 Forces Analysis The Porter’s 5 Forces model is one of the mostly used analytical frameworks in evaluating the competitive external environment with a view to understand the dynamics of the competitive structure in a particular sector or industry (Henry, 2008). The five forces that determine the competitive nature and overall long-term profitability of the sector include: ‘threat of market entry by new entrants; threat of alternatives; bargaining power of buyers; bargaining power of suppliers, and; the extent of rivalry between existing competitors (Henry, 2008). The decision to host the World Summit on Arts and Culture in a particular candidate city is ultimately made by IFACCA, implying that the international body cannot be evaluated against other bodies and agencies t o determine the level of competitiveness since IFACCA operates a monopoly in announcing decisions on successful cities to host the event. In terms of the competition faced by Winchester in ensuring that it is given the rights to host the 2017 edition of the event, the event organizers recognizes the presence of more developed and culture-centric cities bidding for the same event. To win the event, therefore, Winchester must develop the capacity to anticipate the moves made by the other candidate cities and also be conscious of the probability of having to compete with other new entrants for the rights to host the event. The conference/convention owners also form a critical component of Winchester’s matrix in bidding for the event because these owners are perceived as the suppliers of the facilities that will facilitate the event. Consequently, the relationship established by these suppliers and the event organizers for Winchester’s bid will ultimately determine the suc cess of the city in requesting for the rights to hold the event. A Critical Review of the Key Success Factors for the Event The evaluation done in the preceding sections of this bidding proposal identifies at least 5 success factors for Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture, namely: availability of modern conference facilities; solid foundation of public support for Winchester to pursue the bid to host the event; excellent record for handling a large influx of visitors/delegates to any kind of international event; excellent record of bidding for, and winning, the opportunity to host major international events, and; the presence of a target audience that values arts and culture. In the availability of modern facilities, this analysis has demonstrated that Winchester has a number of modern conference centres fitted with the latest amenities, including round-the-clock broadband internet access, telephone facilities and accommodation. The event owners , according to Swart Bob (2004), must be fully satisfied that a candidate city has the necessary facilities and infrastructure before committing the bid to host the event to that city. The support of the local population is of immense importance in bidding to host an international event of this nature because of the fact that it is the public and visitors who are largely expected to consume the presentations made during the event, hence giving the event its economic and social dimension. The UK has an outstanding record of handling a large influx of visitors/delegates to any kind of international event. This record may form the basis for consideration of Winchester to host the 2017 edition, particularly against the backdrop of ensuring the safety and security of delegates in a time when international terrorism is on the increase (Heslop et al, 2010). Equally, the UK has an outstanding record of bidding for, and winning, the opportunity to host major international events, with a maj or hall mark being the hosting of the 2012 Olympics Games in London. The outstanding record of winning the rights to host major events implies that there are many examples of best practice that the bidding team for the 2017 event could draw upon to enhance their chances of success. Lastly, the city prides itself of a huge following of artistic and cultural lovers, particularly due to its ageing population. This audience will greatly assist in bringing the material, economic and spiritual support needed for Winchester to win the bid for the hosting of the 2017 event. An Analysis of Strategic Options Available to Ensure Successful Hosting Based on a review of existing literature, the PESTLE analysis, the SWOT analysis and Porter’s 5 Forces analysis, the event organizers have identified two strategic priorities that need to be effectively addressed for Winchester city to succeed in its attempt to bid for the rights to hold the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. These priorit ies, which have been identified using the Ansoff’s Product/Market Matrix, bears some level of overlap as discussed below. These priorities, if well addressed, will form the basis for justifying why IFACCA should give the rights to hold the 2017 event to Winchester City. It should be noted that the matrix is basically a tool that assists business entities to decide their product and market growth strategy guided by the assumption that the entity’s attempt to grow intrinsically depend on whether it market new or existing products/services in new or existing markets (Jackson, 2010). Priority 1: Winchester aspires to become a world cultural and heritage site, and have some of the most exquisite locations to show in the whole of UK. The local population and the political base of the city readily identify with artistic and cultural-related activities and discourses as the city is usually evaluated under the lens of art and culture (Jackson, 2010). The strategic priority, the refore, is to reinforce the already existing connections between the city and art/culture. This can be done using Ansoff’s growth strategy of market penetration by selling the existing artistic and cultural attractions to the local and international audience. The hosting of the 2017 event will therefore act as a catalyst for the city to secure its dominance of being a world cultural city through the employment of various strategies, including the creation of awareness about the city and its product offerings, advertising, and increasing the number of people visiting the city. Here, IFACCA is justified to give the rights to host the 2017 event to Winchester due to the city’s already existing reputation as a major world heritage site, a local population that readily identifies with artistic and cultural events, and a broad political support for the event. Priority 2: Winchester city has a relatively good level of overlap between tourism and the hosting of important natio nal and international events. However, it is generally felt that closer collaboration between these critical variable could serve as an important ingredient in leveraging substantial economic and social benefits for the city. The strategic priority, therefore, is for the bidding team to come up with viable ways to bring all stakeholders on board in attempts aimed at marketing major tourist attractions in the city through the hosting of major events. This can be successfully achieved using Ansoff’s concept of market development in that local stakeholders will be seeking to sell existing tourist attractions located in the city to new markets brought about by converging local people and international visitors into the city to participate in major events (Morden, 2007). Here, Winchester is justified to receive the rights to host the 2017 summit due to its ability to come up with new and enticing tourist attractions, as well as new ways of repackaging the sites to ensure they leav e a memorable experience to visitors. Recommendations to Strategy Approach The various analysis conducted in this bidding proposal have exposed a number of weaknesses that need to be addressed to reinforce Winchester’s chances of successfully bidding for the rights to host the 2017 World Summit on Art and Culture. To effectively deal with the issue of improving access to funding opportunities, the bidding team need to take contingency plans aimed at leveraging wider investment opportunities and identifying additional sources of funding rather than over relying on public funding streams. For instance, the team could develop innovative funding models such as raffles and competitions to raise the capital needed to organize a successful bid. To alter the public and the event owners’ perceptions about the ailing UK economy, the bid team, in conjunction with other interested stakeholders, could organize joint marketing initiatives on television and other communication medium s with the aim to portray the city as a place of resilient economic and cultural growth and regeneration driven by the presence of world-class cultural and heritage sites, as well as other major attractions such as a huge concentration of renowned public sector employers, including the University of Winchester (Hampshire County Council, 2011). Conclusion A strand of existing literature (Westerbeek et al, 2002; Martins Sera, 2011) demonstrates that cities are increasingly bidding to host major international events due to the positive economic and social ramifications associated with these events. These events have also been positively correlated with rapid infrastructural development and identity and image building for the hosting cities (Swart Bob, 2004). To achieve these benefits, however, cities need to employ strategic management and decision-making tools to inform their bidding and hosting strengths and weaknesses, as well as to establish existing priorities that could be effe ctively used to capitalize on existing opportunities while attempting to alter the perceived threats into probable alternatives. This bidding proposal concludes that Winchester City, Britain, has all what it takes to successfully bid for, and host, the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. The justification for this conclusion is heavily derived on the various analyses undertaken in preceding sections of this document, as well as the analysis of critical success factors for Winchester/s bid. While some analyses demonstrates the city’s innate strengths in holding the event, some critical success factors, such as the availability of modern conference facilities, public support for art and culture, and an excellent record for holding such international events, will inarguably influence IFACCA’s decision on which city is best suited to host the 2017 edition of the event. These factors are unique to Winchester, thus there is a predominant possibility that city is destined to win the rights to host the event. List of References Fine, L. G. (2009). The SWOT Analysis: Using your Strengths to Overcome Weaknesses, Using your Opportunities to Overcome Threats. New York: CreateSpace. Hampshire County Council (2011). Winchester Town Access Plan. Web. Hede, A. M., Kellett, P (2011). Marketing Communications for Special Events: Analyzing Managerial Practice, Consumer Perceptions and Preferences. European Journal of Marketing, 45 (6), pp. 987-1004. Henry, A (2008). Understanding Strategic Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press Heslop, L. A., Nadeau, J., O’Reilly, N (2010). China and the Olympics: Views of Insiders and Outsiders. International Marketing Review, 27 (4), pp. 404-433. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2011a). 7th World Summit on Arts and Culture 2017 – Bidding Guidelines to be released. Web. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2011). IFACCA Announces Host for 6th World S ummit on Arts and Culture. Web. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2012). Web. Jackson, M. O. (2010). Social and Economic Networks. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Leonardsen, D. (2007). Planning of Mega Events: Experiences and Lessons. Planning Theory Practice, 8 (1), pp. 11-30. Martins, A., Serra, A. (2011). Market Impact of International Sporting and Cultural Events. Journal of Economics Finance, 35 (4), pp. 382-416. Maughan, C., Bianchini, F (2004). The Economic and Social Impact of Cultural Festivals in the East Midlands of England. Web. Morden, T. (2007). Principles of Strategic Management. London. Ashgate Publishing Richards, G., Wilson J. (2004). The Impact of Cultural Events on City Image: Rotterdam, Cultural Capital of Europe 2001. Urban Studies, 41 (10), pp. 1931-1951. Schneider, C. P. (2010). The unrealized Potential of Cultural Diplomacy: â€Å"Best Practices† and what could be, if only. Journal of Arts Management, Law S ociety, 39 (4), pp. 260-279. Swart, K., Bob, U. (2004). The Seductive Discourse of Development: The Cape Town 2004 Olympic Bid. Third World Quarterly, 25 (7), pp. 1311-1324. Westerbeek, H. M., Turner, P., Ingerson, L. (2002). Key Success Factors in Bidding for Hall Mark Sporting Events. International Marketing Review, 19 (3), pp. 303-322. Winchester City Council (2012). Visit Winchester. Web. 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Literature Review On Leadership Styles On Stress Outcomes Management Essay The leaders leadership styles play a very important role in achieving goals of the organization. The leaders ability to adapt to internal and external environment changes and working with followers together is the key to success. Moreover, I should mention that many causal modeling revealed that leadership style has a direct, rather than indirect, effect on task performance. Highly complex and stress-laden workplaces present challenges to organizational leaders as they are faced with the task of managing the workforce while concurrently maintaining commitment and morale. Leaders can often be in the middle source of stress among employees in the workplace (Basch Fisher, 2000; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). As the distinctiveness of work changes, so must change the roles and tactics of all leaders. The Leader promote supportive relationships, elicit motivation along with assistants/followers, make possible more positive and less negative emotions along with assistants, and stimulate more kind evaluations of stressful tasks among assistants may be more effective than the more conventional leaders who usually tend toward task-directive methods. These leadership elements based on relation, motivation, and emotion are customary with transformational leadership styles (Bass, 1998; Yukl, 1998). Despite a considerable body of literature suggests that leaders based on transformational are effective, there is a small number of experimental research that has discovered how transformational leaders may impact subordinates/followers during stressful business deals. Taking into above mentioned I am to deal with transformational and transactional leadership styles their influence on different subordinate including emotional and motivational experiences. The effects of leadership style based on stressful task performance were examined (by Joseph B.Lyons, Tamara R.Schneider 2009) as potential mediators, further. The Nature of Leadership and Job Stress 2.1 Leadership Style In the field of organizational behavior the leadership is really an important subject. Leadership is one with the most dynamic effects during individual and organizational interaction. In other words, whether a management is able to execute collaborated effort depends on leadership capability. The excellent leader is not only inspires followers potential to improve efficiency and also meet their requirements in the process of achieving organizational goals. According to Stogdill (1957) leadership as the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. In latter days, Richards Engle (1986) defined leadership as about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. Definitions on leadership defined by selected authors were summarized into table 1. Year Author Definition of Leadership 1957 Hemphill Coons Leadership is the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. 1957 Stogdill Leadership is an influential activity to others or organization to achieve the target set by the leader. 1969 Bowers Leadership is an activity process of interpersonal relationship; others behavior is influenced through this process to achieve the set target. 1977 Davis Leadership means persuasion on others to enthusiastically chase for certain target. 1982 Morphet, Johns Reller Leadership means, in the social system, the individual action, behavior, faith and target are influenced by the others under volunteer cooperation. 1986 Richards Engle Leadership is about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. 1990 Sergiovanni Leadership means the leader satisfies the staffs demand by use of consultation, negotiation and compromise so that the staff trades his work for rewards. 1990 Jacobs Jaques Leadership helps others to strive and to enhance aspiration to achieve the target. 1993 Robbins Leadership is the ability to influence the group to achieve the target. 1994 Yukl Leadership is the process of influence on the subordinate, in which the subordinate is inspired to achieve the target, the group is maintained in cooperation, and the established mission is accomplished, and the support from external group is obtained. 2001 Northouse Leadership is exchanged relationship between leader and subordinate. 2003 Fry Leadership means use of leading strategy to offer inspiring motive and to enhance the staffs potential for growth and development. Table 1: Definition of Leadership After reviewing studies on leadership theory conducted in the past, it is generally divided into four periods: Traits theory in 1930s It focuses on the innate leadership qualities and competence. These innate qualities are not found in others. The so-called quality can be divided into physiological and mental aspects. The physiological aspect includes: height, weight, looks, and vigor while the mental aspect includes intelligence, confidence, and aggressiveness etc. Stogdill (1948) proposed twelve leadership related studies and was considered as representative of this period. Behavioral theory from late 1940s to late 1960s It believes that a leader will be able to achieve ideal organizational efficiency if he demonstrates effective leadership behaviors. These leadership behaviors may be trained or learned through experience. Actual behavior or leadership styles are emphasized. Representative research is conducted in Ohio State University. Ohio State University proposed considerationand initiating structure of leadership behaviors. Consideration is a behavior that focuses on strengthening relationship with subordinates based on their needs and perceptions, while initiating structure is a behavior that focuses on subordinate performance in goal accomplishment. Contingency theory in late 1960s: This theory states that there is no set of optimum leadership model in this world and that it depends on the situation encountered. Situational leadership theory began its development subsequently. It states that leaders need to adopt the most optimum leadership style based on different organizational situations. Among which, Fiedlers contingency theory (1967) is most well-known. Contemporary leadership theory since 1970s: The viewpoint of contemporary leadership theory states that leadership is a type of interactive process with the environment. Bass Avolio (1990) proposed transactional leadership and transformation leadership : Transactional leadership: Encouraging subordinates through incentive establishment. In other words, incentive elicits work performance. Transactional leadership is the basis for most leadership theories. It focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and the subordinate (Fry, 2003 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºNorthouse, 2001); transformation leadershipto enhance staffs trust and respect for leader by altering intrinsic work value and faith of staff at the same time in order to elicit work capabilities. Because charisma is viewed as an essential element, transformation leader provides incentives for subordinates, enhance subordinate potential and development. (Fry, 2003); and Charismatic leadership theory refers to the followers perception toward certain behaviors of the leader as being heroic or extraordinary. 2.2. Personality Charateristics Personality characteristic means ones psychological and physical phenomenon. At different time and condition, it adapts to different environment by unique behavioral mode and thinking method. Friedman Rosenman (1959) categorize personality characteristics into type A and B. Type A shows exuberant ambition and aggression. Type B has more patience and pays less attention to competition and sense of achievement. Definitions of personality characteristic were summarized as shown into table 2. Year Author Definition of Personality Characteristic 1959 Guilford Personality characteristic is a combination of individual trait and property, which generates a lasting and special characteristic different from the others. 1961 Allport Personality means dynamic behavior from psychological and physical aspect to adapt to the environment. 1970 Pervin Personality represents structure and dynamics from reaction to the environment. 1972 Scott Mitchell Personality is formed from accumulation of psychological growth and development. 1998 Robbins Personality is ones reaction to the others and consequence of interaction with others. 1985 Lee Personality characteristic means psychological attributes of affection and thought among people; its also a specific and lasting behavioral pattern. 1997 Lu The formation of personality is affected by gene, culture, environment, and social factor. Table 2 Definitions of Personality Characteristic 2.3. Empirical Studies The verification researches made by the domestic and foreign scholars on leadership, job stress, personality characteristic and turnover intention are described as follows: In research of leader behavior and job stress, Fleishman (1964) found that consideration in the leader behavior has negative connection with the job stress, while the initiating structure is positively connected with job stress; In research of leader behavior and turnover intention, Fleishman Harris (1962) in the study of the influence of various leadership types on turnover rate and complaint rate found that consideration for the subordinates is negatively connected with the turnover, while the initiating structure is positively connected with turnover; In research of job stress and turnover intention, Parasuraman Alutto (1984) in the research on 217 employees at the food manufacturing company indicated that job stress had positive connection with turnover intention; In research of personality characteristics and job stress, Chang (1998) chose employees of Taiwan Sugar Company as research subject and indicated that those with type A personality characteristic had higher perception of job stress and shew more physical and psychological discomfort reactions; In research of personality characteristics and turnover intention, Chang (2003) released 260 questionnaires to 11 schools and revealed that personality characteristics had no significant impact on turnover intention. The relevant empirical researches were listed in table 3. Author Year Sample Empirical Result Hsu 1986 222 operators of China Steel Company. In leadership method, consideration has significantly negative connection with job stress, but the initiating structure has apparently positive connection with job stress. For overall , leadership is negatively connected with job stress. Huang 1984 207 engineers of a RD institute Consideration leadership has negative connection with turnover. Ke 1989 217 employees of 105 companies In leader behavior, consideration has negative connection with turnover intention and the initiating structure is negatively connected with turnover intention. Parasuraman Alutto 1984 217 employees of food manufacturing company Job stress has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Tzeng 1994 Employees of 12 five-star hotels in Taipei Job stress is positively connected with turnover intention. Tzeng 2001 180 high-tech industry and 255 traditional industry People with A-type personality characteristics perceive job stress more serious while, those who with B-type perceive the least. Chang 1998 All inland employees of Taiwan Sugar Company People with more A-type personality characteristics perceive higher extent of job stress and also higher improper reaction physically and psychologically. Wang 1990 Employees from 95 gas stations at 23 cities People with A-type personality characteristics have significantly higher job stress than those of people with B-type. Chiu 1994 2,400 employees of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. People with A-type personality characteristics perceive more anxiety, disconsolation, low self-respect than those people with B-type, yet the overall job stress does not reach significant level. Chang 2003 260 contractual personnel at 11 schools The research result finds that personality characteristics has no evident influence on turnover intention. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research result indicates no significant variance between male and female on job stress. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office Age is positively connected with job stress. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Age has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Single people feel higher job stress than the married ones. Chen 1997 Employees of enterprises in mid of Taiwan Married people perceive more disconsolate job stress than single ones. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Turnover intention of single people is higher than that of married ones. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research found turnover intention difference between female and male is not evident. Chuang 2000 Research of job stress and job satisfaction on 174 high-tech employees Workers seniority has positive connection with job stress. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Workers seniority has negative connection with job stress. Table 3 Empirical Research 2.4. Job Stress Job stress means improper occupational stress or burden that badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself (Kroes, 1974). Peng (1998) states that psychological stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but a handling method or relationship; it is the interaction between the individual and the environment, which gains or consumes resources of human behavior and endangers the individual health. When the individual feels job stress, it usually comes along with following symptoms: Psychological aspect passive, disconsolate, anxious and anger; physical aspect imbalance incretion, headache, sleepless and disturbed; Behavioral aspect change of living behavior, decrease of job involvement, absence from work, and turnover. The definitions of various authors were summarized in table 4. Year Author Definition of Job Stress 1956 Seley Stress means uncertain reaction of the body to demand, and also basic demand from internal or external environment, or reaction result against threat of balance condition. 1971 French Stress is the consequence that an individuals ability or skills fail to coordinate with the job or the job environment cannot satisfy the individual demand. 1974 Kroes Stress is improper occupational pressure or burden which badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself. 1978 Beehr Newman Stress is the change that drives the worker from normal psychological and physical condition. 1980 Ivancevich Matteson Stress is some adaptive reaction, a consequence of special psychological or physical demand from the event, and such reaction takes personal character as intermediary. 1984 Fleming et al. Stress is a conceptualized process and contains ones recognition and reaction to danger or threat. 1985 Jamal Stress is ones reaction against threat in the working environment. 1998 Peng The psychology claims that job stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but some handling method or relationship. Table 4 Definition of Job Stress 3.0. The effects of leadership style on stress outcomes. Transactional versus Transformational Leadership. 3.1. Transactional Leadership Basss (1998) Very many Leadership Model discusses 3 leadership styles:1: transactional, 2:laissez-faire, and 3:transformational. A fundamental feature of transactional leadership is the social exchange procedure. There are 3 appearances of transactional leadership: contingent reward, management by exception-active, and management by exception-passive. Contingent reward leadership engrosses establishing worker expectancies of rewards (e.g., financial compensation or public praise) for good acting. Management by exception-active leadership is distinguished by actively watching subordinate departures from performance standards. These leaders inspire subordinates by encouraging them to preserve established performance standards and avoid making errors. I case performance differences are detected, the leader will get involved and make the compulsory corrections. Vice versa to the active form, passive management by exception leaders do not actively monitor performance deviations but rather wait to be notified of performance deviations. After that upon recognition of a performance departure, the leader will intervene. My literature review focuses only on the active form of management by exception, and all future suggestions to management by exception leadership are in orientation to the active structure of management by exception. Ghee Soon Lim, (2004) transactional leaders focus on the present and do well at keeping the organization running smoothly and efficiently. They are good at traditional management functions such as planning and budgeting and generally focus on the impersonal aspects of job performance. Transactional leaders can be quite effective. By clarifying expectations, leaders help build followers confidence. In addition, satisfying the needs of subordinates may improve productivity and morale. Transactional leaders maintain stability within the organization rather than promote change. Transactional skills are important for all leaders. In todays world, where organizational success often depends on continuous change, effective leaders also use a different approach. 3.2. Transformational Leadership Comparing with transactional leaders, transformational leaders request to the motivational, emotional, and developmental needs of their followers (Bass, 1998). Transformational leadership is distinguished by four elements: inspirational motivation (the ability to naturally easily motivate and request to someones emotions), idealized influence (the ability to obtain respect from others), individualized support (the ability to support followers sole developmental needs), and intellectual stimulation (the ability to stimulate followers desire to learn and develop) (Bass, 1998). Transformational leaders give power to employees through emotional requests (Yukl, 1998) and may alter the frame stressful situations as chances for growth at the same time as providing the necessary maintain throughout the performance procedure (Bass, 1998; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). Research has displayed that transformational leaders are successful leaders (Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, Mackenzie Bommer, 1996; Yammarino, Spangler Bass, 1993). On the other hand, most leadership study has used correlation data to scan how certain leadership styles relate to act and other minor variables, as a result numerous researchers called for increased use of testing in leadership research (Brown Lord, 1999; Kirkpatrick Locke, 1996). There are some empirical study where leadership styles (notably charismatic styles) have been operated (Cherulnik, Donley, 2001; Bono Ilies, 2006), so far few studies have tested whether those manipulations effect in changes in objective task performance. Because of their higher visioning, support, and potential for alter the framing of stressful situations as chances, it is expected that transformational leaders will improve followers task performance throughout stressful tasks. 3.3. Evaluation transformational and transactional leadership styles and their influence on individuals performance on a stressful task. In my literature review I tried to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership style impacts more positively individuals performance on a stressful tasks and overall followers performance. First of all analyzing transformational and transactional leadership styles, basically Leadership style may determine the effectiveness of customer service training and deployment. Tichy and Devanna (1986) suggest that both transformational and transactional leadership are both effective leadership styles. Tosi (1982) also agrees. Transactional leaders lead to low follower satisfaction, while encouraging maintenance of the status quo (Bass et al., 1987). Likewise, transactional leaders find success by focusing on task-oriented exchange relationships to achieve success in attaining goals. Transformational leaders lead change-usually on greater levels of the organization and follower of transformational leaders are generally more committed and dedicated to the leader and goals of the organization. (Bass, 1985; Tichy Devanna, 1986). Transformational leaders articulate a vision for a future of their organization, while at the same time intellectually stimulate subordinates and focus on differences among people (Yammarino Bass, 1990). Furthermore, transformational leadership is based on the personal values, beliefs, and qualities of the leader rather than on an exchange process between leaders and followers. In addition transformational leadership differs from transactional leadership in some areas. Firstly, Transformational leadership develops followers into leaders, means followers are given greater freedom to control their own behavior. Transformational leadership rallies people around a mission and defines the boundaries within which followers can operate in relative freedom to accomplish organizational goals. Secondly, transformational leader pays attention to each individuals need for growth and development. Therefore, the leader sets examples and assigns tasks not only to meet immediate needs but also to elevate followers needs and abilities to higher level and link them to the organizations mission. Transformational leaders change followers so that they are empowered to change the organization. Thirdly, transformational leaders motivate people to do more than originally expected. Followers admire these leaders, want to identify with them, and have a high degree of trust in them. Transformational leaders motivates people not just to follow the leader personally but also to believe in the need for change and be willing to make personal sacrifices for the greater purpose. Fourthly, the most significant role of the transformational leader may be to find a vision for the organization that is significantly better than the old one and to enlist others in sharing the dream. Change can occur only when people have a sense of purpose as well as a desirable picture of where the organization is going. Without vision, there can be no transformation. Whereas transactional leaders promote stability, transformational leaders create significant change in followers as well as in organizations. Leaders can learn to be transformational as well as transactional. Effective leaders exhibit both transactional and transformational leadership patterns. They accentuate not only their abilities to build a vision and empower and energize others, but also the transactional skills of designing structures, control systems, and reward systems that can help people achieve the vision.(Marfred F.R. Kets De Vries, 1998) 4.0. Conclusion We live in an period of time where leadership symbolizes a emotional, developmental, and motivational part of organizational achievement; thats why a range of subordinate results/outcomes are important things to consider when we evaluate leadership successfulness. Having looked thoroughly through all the studies examined to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership styles impacts positively on individuals performances on a stressful task, and also when taking into account social support, efficiency beliefs, negative emotions. For example, One of this kind of experimental examine was held and that experiment took part 240 (two hindered forty) participants, they are watched video instructions for a stressful task. The experimental study provided evidence that transformational leadership is advantageous not only for performance, but also when considering effectiveness beliefs, social support, stress assessments, and negative emotions. Leaders of the future are encountered/faced with heavy challenges. Leaders must be clever at influencing followers motivational, emotional, and developmental needs in the stressful circumstance of present work. This kind of changes in the focus of modern leadership successfulness requires that leadership explorers go after suit and need consider a wider range of unpredictable outcomes in leadership research. In addition I would like also add that Transformational leaders, with their excellent arsenal of inspirational motivation, Individualized support, idealized influence and intellectual stimulation have to meet these challenges of in our day and those of the upcoming future.

Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero :: Epic of Beowulf Essay

Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero An epic is a long narrative poem on a serious subject. It usually is about the adventures of a hero. The hero is usually a figure of high social status and one who is often of great historical or legendary importance. In the epic poem "Beowulf", Beowulf is the hero. He shows that he is a great man by always putting other things before his own needs. He is important and needed by his people and is known by many as a courageous and helpful person. Beowulf is a good example of a courageous and strong hero. He shows all of the qualities and traits that a true hero possesses. Beowulf is a very brave and courageous person. His actions toward the monster Grendel that was terrorizing the Danes show that he is willing to help others. In an epic it is usually found that the hero often determines the fate of a nation or group of people. Beowulf has definitely helped the Danes and his own people the Geats in their triumph over evil by killing Grendel his mom and the dragon. He has helped mankind a great deal and because of that he is made king of the Geats. Beowulf^Ã’s brave deeds and accomplishments have contributed to the Danes and the Geats survival. Another characteristic of and epic poem is that the hero performs outrageous and sometimes superhuman deeds. Beowulf is a prime example of this type of hero. He volunteers himself to fight Grendel and when Grendel^Ã’s mom seeks revenge he goes to the lake and takes on the challenge. He shows the great qualities of strength and power when, after fifty years, he takes on the dragon who has become a threat to the Geats. He always battles his enemies with pride. When Beowulf and wiglaf fight the dragon and everyone else becomes cowardly and runs off to the forest and hides. Through this it is shown that they possess courageous traits and are genuinely ready and willing to help. Often in an epic poem, the plot is complicated by supernatural beings and events. Good examples of this are when Beowulf fights Grendel. Grendel is a monster and there is no such thing as a monster. The same goes for the dragon. Throughout history there has never been a dragon that gets mad that a thief has taken part of his treasure. Also when Beowulf is dying he asks Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero :: Epic of Beowulf Essay Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero An epic is a long narrative poem on a serious subject. It usually is about the adventures of a hero. The hero is usually a figure of high social status and one who is often of great historical or legendary importance. In the epic poem "Beowulf", Beowulf is the hero. He shows that he is a great man by always putting other things before his own needs. He is important and needed by his people and is known by many as a courageous and helpful person. Beowulf is a good example of a courageous and strong hero. He shows all of the qualities and traits that a true hero possesses. Beowulf is a very brave and courageous person. His actions toward the monster Grendel that was terrorizing the Danes show that he is willing to help others. In an epic it is usually found that the hero often determines the fate of a nation or group of people. Beowulf has definitely helped the Danes and his own people the Geats in their triumph over evil by killing Grendel his mom and the dragon. He has helped mankind a great deal and because of that he is made king of the Geats. Beowulf^Ã’s brave deeds and accomplishments have contributed to the Danes and the Geats survival. Another characteristic of and epic poem is that the hero performs outrageous and sometimes superhuman deeds. Beowulf is a prime example of this type of hero. He volunteers himself to fight Grendel and when Grendel^Ã’s mom seeks revenge he goes to the lake and takes on the challenge. He shows the great qualities of strength and power when, after fifty years, he takes on the dragon who has become a threat to the Geats. He always battles his enemies with pride. When Beowulf and wiglaf fight the dragon and everyone else becomes cowardly and runs off to the forest and hides. Through this it is shown that they possess courageous traits and are genuinely ready and willing to help. Often in an epic poem, the plot is complicated by supernatural beings and events. Good examples of this are when Beowulf fights Grendel. Grendel is a monster and there is no such thing as a monster. The same goes for the dragon. Throughout history there has never been a dragon that gets mad that a thief has taken part of his treasure. Also when Beowulf is dying he asks

One process theory of motivation Essay

Motivation is great part of today’s management. However, â€Å"most organizations don’t give it much thought until something starts to go wrong. Pain gets people’s attention.† _(Sanjeev Sharma)_ Therefore it is important to motivate because motivation is force behind all human actions _(Sanjeev Sharma)_. Manager must be able to realize and fulfil the most urgent needs of employees as well as other needs to keep than satisfied, free from stress, and highly motivated. Satisfied and motivated employees are value because they will be less likely to quit the job therefore reducing staff turnover and cost of employee training as they will have gained all the necessary skills and experience, so their performance will be good, therefore companies overall performance can rise as well. This essay is focused on the exploration and comparison of Alderfer’s and Adams’ theories. It seeks the answers to what makes them fall in different category and yet what are the similarities between them and, furthermore, how they can be used together to achieve greater efficiency and to leave less for the chance of error or uncertainty when motivating the employee. Many people have studied needs and ways of motivating the employees. Theories on this subject can be very different and are divided into two categories – content and process theories. Content theories stress that every one of us has same set of needs, which must be satisfied. One of the first and most influential content theories is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954). This theory states that human needs are formed similar to pyramid with 5 levels, where bottom level must be completed to move to the next level. Five levels are: 1. Psychological (food, shelter, clothe), 2. Security needs, 3. Social needs, 4. Self-esteem (recognition and self-belief), 5. self-actualization (develop one’s full potential). (R. Fincham, P Rhodes, 2005 p.195) One similar to Maslow’s is ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth) theory  developed by Alderfer (1972). Alderfer’s theory says that everybody has 3 sets of needs. Existence, which includes food, shelter, clothes, need to feel safe and similar (Maslow’s 1st and 2nd levels). Relatedness – social activities, family, friendly working environment, etc (Maslow’s 3rd and 4th levels). Growth – recognition from supervisors and managers, occasional bonuses or rise in salary, promotion, etc (Maslow’s 4th and 5th levels). Although it looks like the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs with less and more compact sets of needs, there is one important difference – there is no order specified in which these needs must be satisfied. _(Fincham, Rhodes, 2005)_ However, as Kotler et al 2005, points out if one has unsatisfied need, one will try to find something that satisfies it or tries to get rid of the need. This relates to the Frustration – Regression principle in Alderfer’s theory while when the need has been satisfied it also is strengthen ed (as illustrated in chart below) _(12manage.com_). However, with the passage of time and possible changes in lifestyle or other circumstances can force one to come back to needs that have been satisfied in past and set new, more demanding needs to meet the needs of current situation. Companies has limited influence on Existence set of needs, other than providing rates of pay which enables worker to pay all the bills and supply family with enough food, and still have some extra spending money left (there are cases where ‘worker villages’ have been built in order to provide workers with accommodation and everything necessary, as to provide for existence needs and ultimately have some control of workers lives as well). However, there are many possible ways of satisfying Relatedness and Growth sets of needs. Relatedness could be satisfied by ensuring friendly and open working conditions, possibly non-work related social activities with co-workers, extra holidays to spend with families. Growth is arguably the most important and the most work related one. Growth is almost entirely dependant on supervisors, as for example rise and promotion. Also praise and recognition from supervisor will be much more effective than ones from co-workers, although being rec ognized as unofficial leader by co-workers is strongly motivating and satisfying. Process theories however, admit that we all are different and therefore have different needs. Further more they focus on way employees see themselves in the company, the way they are treated in respect of the other employees in regard of their effort and performance. Adams’ Equity theory explores inputs and outputs of a worker and tries to set the balance between them. Inputs represent the effort and performance worker puts in his job like dedication, long hours, high efficiency and outputs on the other hand, represent all he wants to receive for that like recognition from supervisors in form of praise or rise in salary, promotion, bonuses and similar. Adams stresses that keeping balance between inputs and outputs is very important as in case of imbalance worker can loose self-esteem, motivation or come under pressure to perform better, therefore coming under stress, which will inevitably lead to fall in performance. Although feeling of being overpaid is not widely studied it is believed that the negative effect of the feeling wears of shortly and has little effect on the worker, _(SIOP)_ however has impact on other workers who might feel underpaid or undervalued. Therefore, all extra inputs must be balanced with extra outputs. Nevertheless one must not forget that first of all employees will compare themselves to co-workers. If one employee will have high rewards, for example have a rise, than others will look for justification for that. In case that none is found others will feel neglected therefore their performance will drop or they will ask for the rise, or encourage other (the one who receives higher rewards) to work harder, or convince themselves that they are not worth the higher reward _(SIOP)._ Some of these outcomes are potentially mentally dangerous therefore create stress in the workplace or even worse crate tension between workforce which can lead to different unwanted outcomes even such as strikes out violence outbursts. This inevitably means that overall performance of the company will drop. _(Fincham, Rhodes, 2005)_ The main difference between these theories lies in the fact that Alderfer’s one focuses on satisfaction of needs whereas Adams’ one focuses on creating good and balanced relationship between inputs and outputs of the worker and more importantly good relationship and equality between co-workers, and fairness from the supervisor. It is not specified in Alderfer’s theory  exactly how to determine when is the best time to motivate the employee nor why, while on the other hand Adams’ theory is more concerned about when and why to motivate the employee. This shows clearly that these two theories are completely different in their basis. Furthermore part of Alderfer’s theory is Frustration – Regression principle in which an unsatisfied need is being regressed and made up by satisfying more other needs. In some respects similarly with Adams’ theory – if balance is unfair than employees will feel discomfort. Both of these will take empl oyees mind of the duties of work which will lead in fall of performance. Alderfer’s and Adams’ theories both point out the need of balance between things, however each theory puts stress on different things. Alderfer suggests that needs of employee must be equally satisfied between each of the three sets, therefore no need are neglected. However, as mentioned before, a need can be neglected if it has been recently satisfied. On the other hand if one need or set of needs is recently satisfied, it stands above others in level of satisfaction, which therefore makes it reasonable for it to be neglected until other needs reach same level of satisfaction. This process can take up some time and does not require immediate levelling of scales, however Adams’ scales should be levelled at all times. Longer the process of the levelling takes, longer the employees feel the discomfort of injustice which will inevitably lead to employee’s satisfaction or motivation dropping or level of stress rising. In fact Alderfer’s theory could easily become a part of Adams’ theory as a way of determining outputs, for example friendly relationships in workplace is part of Relatedness set of needs and output, which management has provided. Alderfer does not relate to inputs in his theory. This fact makes Adams’ theory more sophisticated and better suited for understanding when and why employee should be awarded. Because if manager is looking to improve worker motivation and job satisfaction he/she can see on one scale the inputs worker has done from where in comparison to co-workers inputs and outputs an appropriate output can be made. However in order to do the comparison of employee’s past and co-worker present performances, they have to be constantly monitored and records kept of the of the information. Using  Alderfer’s theory, however, requires manager to understand employee’s needs and situation to see which needs must be satisfied and what wou ld be the best way to satisfy the need, therefore bringing greater understanding of how and why to award or motivate employee. Adams’s theory is good theory to be using for large companies with many users which all have to be motivated. With help of large and detailed database of workers and their inputs, such as working time, are they late for work or not, their performance, etc and outputs their wages, ways of recognition, etc one can compare workers. Special program can be easily made and adjusted to record and analyse data for independent, non favouring, information on workers which would help to make decisions on their extra outputs. On the other hand Alderfer’s theory would more go for managerial level or smaller companies as it requires in-depth understanding of employee and his situation. If one would put these two theories together the outcome could be a theory in which workers activity is constantly monitored and recorded for purposes of comparison with previous performance and performance of co-workers, therefore, determining the inputs as by Adams’ theory. However, the outputs would be determined according to the needs specified in Alderfer’s theory. Alderfer’s theory could also be substituted, for example, by Hertzberg’s two-factor theory. Although content and process theories are different in their basis, they both work for the same goal and in times can be combined or as in this case content theory can be a part of process theory to explain it more fully and efficiently or just to bring the highest level of efficiency. However, besides the fact Alderfer’s theory can be used to compliment the Adams’ theory, one must not forget that most important part of Adams’ theory is far from just motivating the employee but is based on equality among workers and their inputs/outputs, because too much outputs can produce feeling of overpayment therefore creating stress for employee as he/she tries to increase inputs to level the scales. â€Å"Alderfer’s theory explores which need to satisfy and how while Adams’ theory explores when and why to satisfy the  need.† Previous sentence is very good way of explaining the difference between two theories and seeing that in order for each theory t o work in best way possible – both theories must work together. REFERENCES Books: P. Kotler, V. Wong, J. Saunders, G. Armstrong, _Principles of Marketing,_ (2005 4th European Edition) p. 8, published by Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, England R. Fincham, P. Rhodes, _Principles of Organizational Behaviour,_ (2005, 4th Edition) Published by Oxford University Press, New York, United States Online: Sanjeev Sharma, A right way to motivate an employee, is to win his heart!!! [online] url:http://www.bpoindia.org/research/win-heart.shtml Accessed: 24/11/05 12manage.com _ERG Theory (Alderfer)_[online] url:http://www.12manage.com/methods_alderfer_erg_theory.html Accessed:24/11/05 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology inc. (SIOP), _Justice lecture notes 4,_[online] url: http://siop.org/Instruct/Justice/Justice%20Lecture%20Notes%204.doc Accessed: 26/11/05

American High School Education System by Leon Botstein Essay Example

American High School Education System by Leon Botstein Essay Example American High School Education System by Leon Botstein Paper American High School Education System by Leon Botstein Paper Essay Topic: Education High School In the article â€Å"Let Teenagers Try Adulthood†, Leon Botstein argues that the American high school is outdated and should be totally rebuilt. The main problem high school system faced with, according to Botstein article, is an overall disintegration of the student culture, which has happened because of the prevalence of social cliques and exponentiations of sport teams over than student culture. Moreover, the early maturity of young people in the late twentieth century has lead to the isolation of hormonally active adolescents, thereby holding teenagers beyond the developmental level. Finally, the poor quality of teacher training is another problem schools should worry about. Giving his points of view about all these problems, Botstein suggest modifying secondary education by giving children a chance to start education at age of four or five and combining middle school and junior high school. School should let students graduate at sixteen instead of eighteen years old and let them indulge their energies in the field of knowledge they want to pursue. Trying to understand what has happened and what could be improved in the educational system, which was one of the best systems in the world, I can overall agree with Leon Botstein that â€Å"the American high school is obsolete and should be abolished† (â€Å"Let Teenagers Try Adulthood† Leon Botstein). However, looking over the problems, I can disagree with some of specific Botstein claims. The main problem is not an early maturity of young people, but lack of high schools financing which leads to poor quality of teachers training and overall disintegration of the students’ culture. Asking people of old generation which years were the most memorable and educational for them, most of them should mention years of high school. Years of transition from adolescence to adulthood, years of knowing oneself in the world, understanding their goals; this is the world of high school as it was many years ago, but not anymore. Nowadays, high school is not the place where students leave with good memories and mature to go forward. Moreover, graduating school young people feel total frustration about the adult world understanding that they are not ready for the transition, probably the most important transition in their life. Shortening high school education will not solve the problem; instead it could lead to lack of general knowledge among future generations. At the age sixteen most of the people don’t know their carrier path, and it will be stupid to give them a chance to choose major without appropriate level of education. Young maturity is not a reason to cut two years of high school, but it is a sing to improve high school education to the high level. As Botstein claims, one of the reasons of the high school system’s degradation is poor quality of recruitment and training for educators, which I completely agree with that statement. Teaching has always been one of the most respectful professions demanding high quality of training and dedication. It is a big responsibility to be a teacher because they could be an example for many students. Especially today- when parents don’t spend enough time helping their children in education- teachers should be higher qualified professionals with appropriate salaries and benefits; moreover, with the opportunity to grow professionally. Tuition, that instructors give to their students, shouldn’t be within the bound of subject, but cover all the aspects of life, so young people can put learning into practice. In order to be high qualified educator- with inspiration to educate students- teachers should have more motivation. However, most of the teachers have as low salaries and low possibility for carrier growing. The median teacher salary in the US is forty thousand dollars per year, which is not an appropriate rate for so meaningful job ( payscale. com). Thereby, graduating high schools students don’t have appropriate level of education to enter the university or even college. It means that years of education and self-development in high school are useless. Degeneration of the students’ culture- which isn’t based anymore on educational goals and success- is one of the main problems high school students are facing. They live in the world divided by the cliques. However, these are not the cliques we can think about, like groups of interest as they were before. High school cliques present savage and artificial world of insiders or outsiders, where insiders have all privileges because of their attractiveness, popularity and sport success, as Botstein mentioned in his article. Someone can think that only students are responsible for those false stereotypes they surrounded; though American movies about teenager’s life is a good example that the world of insiders and outsiders became a art of student culture all over the country. Therefore, many students, who consider themselves as a part of outsiders group, confined to a â€Å"jail† of high school environment. They don’t believe that something can change after graduating high school and life could be different beyond this artificial world. Thereby, many young people have lack of self-confidence, psychological problems which can lead to serious consequences and even violence among students, as it happened during Littleton shooting and other similar incidents. Forty five incidents of shooting with a total number of eighty seven deaths for the last fifteen years, comparing to the same numbers in Europe with five attacks and twenty six deaths for the same period of time. Looking to the number of shootings in American middle and high schools for the last fifteen years, we can see that it is a time for changes. (nces. ed. gov) One more fact Botstein assert, which leads to degradation of student culture and make student cliques more obvious, is overrated significance of team sport. High school administration, instead of improving quality of teaching, does everything to make their varsity team succeed. Spending vast amount of money for sport programs, giving too much power to team coaches, school administration makes students to believe that sport achievements are more important than educational success. In many schools sport has become an essential core activity. If children don’t go to school for education first, then what we get are uneducated athletes that expect a free pass throughout their lives, what doesn’t really work in real adult world. High school is a vital part of an educational system and a beginning point of adult life for students. Development of American and any other society depends on young people and their education. Therefore, high level of education should be one of the main priorities for the government. It is time to face up with numerous problems in American High school system, and especially with lack of high school financing, which lead to low training of school personnel and breakdown of the student culture.

Blinding Revenge-Hamlet Essays

Blinding Revenge-Hamlet Essays Blinding Revenge-Hamlet Essay Blinding Revenge-Hamlet Essay Michael Kuritnik 3/6/13 G-Block Blinding Revenge Fundamental themes are preserved throughout history because they relate to everyday aspects of life. Surprisingly, very little has changed since Shakespearean times. Although technology has changed the way in which humans communicate, people still react to emotional stimuli similarly to those of the middle ages. Anger has always triggered annoyance, uproar and violence. Like several characters in Hamlet, today’s society experiences a thirst for revenge because of something unsettling that ultimately stirred up anger. Individuals who strive for vengeance become overwhelmed with indignation. In some cases idiosyncratic deception and false imagery are used in order to attain what one seeks. Throughout Hamlet, Shakespeare emphasizes that revenge leads to chaos and ultimately inevitable debilitating consequences Revenge has the overwhelming ability to deteriorate a man into a monster. It influences Hamlet to make reckless decisions that ruin him and eventually lead to his downfall. Hamlet is driven to insanity by his own desire to kill Claudius. Hamlet becomes so obsessed with revenge that it quickly consumes him. He exclaims in one of his soliloquy, â€Å"Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause And can say nothing- no, not for a king Upon whose property and most dear life A damned defeat was made† (II. ii. 595-598), feeling guilty and remorseful for not yet acting on his impulse for revenge. At this point, calling himself a coward for not having taken revenge, Hamlet clearly demonstrates his madness for vengeance. Moments later, blinded by revenge, Hamlet stabs Polonius on the impulsive whim that it may be Claudius spying on him. He feels no guilt for his reckless action, suggesting that he acted out of madness and had little thought through the affair. Consumed by revenge, Hamlet has deteriorated into a murderer. Immediately after Hamlet murders Polonius, Claudius becomes blinded by his own desire for revenge. In his rage, Claudius sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern with Hamlet to England, where Hamlet fools the English into killing them instead of him. After sending them off, Claudius states, â€Å"I like him not, nor stands it safe with us to let his madness range,† understanding that the best method of containing Hamlet’s revenge is to keep Hamlet close; however Claudius’ anger leads him to send Hamlet to his unhonorable death (III. ii,L1-2). By attempting to avenge Polonius, Claudius ultimately sets up his own demise, as well as Rosencrantz’s and Guildenstern’s. If not for Claudius’ rash decision to send Hamlet away, Hamlet would have never been able to contact Norway and send the spies to their deaths by sabotaging the letter. Laertes’ vengeful decisions lead to detrimental cons equences and the deaths of virtuous lives. Enraged by his father’s death, Laertes decides to make an attempt on Hamlet’s life. Playing cool and pretending to wish for a duel in fun, Laertes tries to gain his revenge. As a result of his recklessness, the entire court of Denmark is killed. Lying motionlessly on the cold marble floor, Laertes whispers to himself, â€Å"The foul practice Hath turned itself on me. Lo, here I lie, Never to rise again,†his lungs gasping for one last breath of air (V. ii. 348-350). Only on his deathbed does Laertes realize the irony and the mistake he made by seeking revenge. This is because Laertes’ obsession with vengeance for his father’s death tempted him to plot for murder with the devious Claudius. Treachery and vengeance, which blinded Laertes, actually lead to his downfall and make him feel at blame for the deaths of innocent people. Not surprisingly, the modern world is full of regretful acts of vengeance. Imperialist Japan shocked the world by bombing the United States at Pearl Harbor in December of 1941. As a result, the United States launched a huge pacific offensive while also sending troops and resources into a large Europe campaign to assist against the Nazis. Similarly, Claudius’ killing of Hamlet’s father triggered Hamlet to seek revenge at all costs. After essentially winning the war, the United States turned their eyes back to the Japanese who had so mercilessly brought them into the fight. Within a week of the dropping of the first atomic bomb, Japanese opposition crumbled. This historical win marked a huge accomplishment, but the US would soon come to regret their decision. By dropping the atomic bomb on Japan, the US gave away critical information as to the extent of their power. Major allies and enemies began constructing their own nuclear weapons, launching the world into the Cold War era. In addition, the atomic bomb obliterated Japanese morale and culture, reducing the island country back to the bottom of the food chain. It would take many years before Japan could return to its former prominence. Today in US history classes students discuss the ethics behind the dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan because of the death, despair, and world chaos that came as a result of payback for a small bombing at Pearl Harbor. In their pursuit for revenge, both America and Hamlet went too far, which resulted in mass killings and the destruction of powerful nations. Shakespeare’s message has proven to reiterate itself through the years. As shown when the otherwise noble Hamlet is driven to blindly kill Polonius, when Claudius dooms his servants unintentionally, and when Laertes’ actions result in the death of the Court of Denmark. Shakespeare makes it clear that revenge’s consequences are drastic. As in the bombing of Japan, this statement is tried and tested every day in the real world, albeit on a much smaller scale. Everywhere revenge is sought after, the aftermath is worse than the beginning.

Assignment should be presented as a Journal opinion article. The Essay

Assignment should be presented as a Journal opinion article. The article should be timely and address an economic issue of current interest to Wall Street Journal readers - Essay Example For the Chicago region, costs of shipping have risen since some organizations are forced to use other routes, which were more expensive. In Dallas, trucking companies argue that cargo volumes went down due to West Coast ports shipping disruptions. This is because small-parcel and rail shipments went up in January, even though they were high the previous year. For the retailers in the western states, they would have realized strong sales during the holiday season if the delays that emerged from West Coast ports never took place. These issues led to a reduction in agricultural exports, as perishable goods were wasted while in storage containers before they could be shipped (Portlock). In addition, Boston Fed revealed that firms were under pressure, particularly due to the negative influences that resulted from unanticipated weather conditions in the southern part of New England. Nevertheless, products, such as coats, boosts, and winter sporting equipment realized strong sales. However, several retailers said that more than 200 stores situated in New England could not operate for a few days due to extreme weather conditions (Portlock). New York, on the other hand, is showing a rise in available rentals, indicating new economic developments, especially in Brooklyn. A transportation analyst situated in Philadelphia region stipulated that the flourishing traffic is nearing levels last witnessed during the previous expansion. In Cleveland district, decline in prices of gasoline have encouraged certain individuals to purchase trucks and SUVs, reaching a sales rise of about 7 percent compared to January 2014. However, a number of dental equipment producers in Richmond area said low number of patients led to reduced sales of the products. In the case of Atlanta region, establishments meant for casual dining witnessed a rise in customer volumes as clients were becoming

According to the require Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

According to the require - Assignment Example With this, age plays a crucial role in language acquisition since it is based on the biological innateness of competence in language. Although a child is not able to learn language by the age of two, this is an expected requirement before puberty (Rowe & Dianne, 110). The discovery of Genie took place through one of the social workers who noticed the 13-year old girl after her mother requested for the services. However, she was not able to acquire a language within a critical period because she did not have any language at the time. She had been one of those feral children who had been raised in social isolation. She had very little or no human contact at all. During the whole of her childhood, she spent most of the moments locked in a bedroom where she had been abused and isolated for an entire decade (Nova Teachers Sc. 1-5). Some of the symptoms that she exhibited in relation to this failure when she was discovered were her ability to reach out to things without saying anything and the ability to communicate with her eyes. She had less weight and was barely able to walk as she had a strange â€Å"bunny walk† (Nova Teachers Sc. 1). As indicated in this film, there is a forbidden experiment which is about deprivation and social isolation to study how language is acquired among human beings. The moral requirements of scientific experiments do not allow researchers to conduct studies using methods of social deprivation. In this respect, Viktor, who was a speechless child discovered in the 19th century in France became a model of this experiment by exposing how the environment within which a child is nurtured can contribute to a horrifying past (Nova Teachers Sc. 1-5).. Since her discovery, the long-term development of Genie’s language was the ability to add new vocabularies to her language every day. She first learnt single words, then