The Effects Of Conflict On A Decision Making - 1877 Words

The objective of this essay will demonstration to what extent is conflict detrimental to a decision making. March and Simon (1958,p 112) â€Å"consider conflict as a breakdown in the standard mechanisms of decision making, so that an individual or group experience difficulty in selecting an alternative.† (Rahim, 2011, p. 15). Decision-making â€Å"is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions.† (Decision-making process - UMass Dartmouth, 2016). Furthermore, the author will provide detailed information to what extend conflict can be harmful or useful for decision making, followed by the conclusion. Conflict is normal, and we cannot avoid it. Conflicts create an atmosphere†¦show more content†¦Conflict can produce positive results, including a greater capacity to make well-informed decisions. Viewing conflict as an opportunity to strengthen decision-making skills and implement constructive changes to office procedures and policies will result in better outcomes and improved department operations Conflict does not always come from bad decisions, but it can also arise from disagreements over a wrong decision. De Clercq, Thongpapanl, and Dimov, 2008). Academy of Marketing Science report shows that companies who works toward goals and growth often encourage conflict to make the best decision. A conflict also brings the best out of employees as it allows them to be free and individuals bring their own unique ideas and experience. (Stravato and 12, 2014, p. 18). Also, it gives the individual team member the ability to act independently. Nevertheless, in order, this to work team members must maintain the strong relationship that allows them to work together effectively. This link with destructive conflict because destructive conflict tends to create inequality and unevenness of power. Often employees feel they are judged negatively, which leads them to lose focus and confidence. Also, employees experience frustration during the conflict as their voice doesn’t have value towa rds decision making therefore, they tend to avoid communication with co-workers which might create additionalShow MoreRelatedManaging Conflict On The Top Management Teams1050 Words   |  5 Pagesof the conflict on the top management teams by using conflict to encourage creativity and discussion, but it is also be able to stop a teamwork process because of difference of opinions and perspectives between team members. Team conflict is a common part in the company that may obstruct the accomplishment of team goals. However, successfully managing conflict may stimulate creativity that can produce superior decision among a team. There are many academic researchers that shown conflict on the topRead MoreEthics, Conflict Management, And Organizational Commitment1664 Words   |  7 Pagesfollowing three topics of ethics, conflict management, and organizational commitment. By exploring these different areas in a business context, we can overall have a better understanding of why individua ls choose to behave a certain way when on the job. For ethical decision-making, I will explore the steps involved in the decision-making process and what internal factors of an individual cause he or she to make an ethical or unethical choice. In terms of conflict management, I will discuss previousRead MoreThe Theory Of An Organization912 Words   |  4 Pagesorganization. The decision making starts at the top, with the person in power and trickles down to the employees in the organizations. Hence, the person in power has the authority and decision making capability. This is also known as bureaucracy, which occurs within a government institution such as; when meetings occur, the commissioner will make the final decisions about goals and how to implement those goals. All organizations recognize that decisions have to be made. The decision theory is similarRead MoreThe Case Of The Conflicted Surgeon1166 Words   |  5 PagesThe Case of the Conflicted Surgeon Conflicts of interest are a common topic discussed in news outlets as it is a major source of corruption amongst professionals. Most professionals rely on their own moral compasses to make ethical decisions. Unfortunately, this approach does not always work as studies have shown that professionals can often recognize conflicts of interest for others, but fail to recognize them in their own lives. Thus, some professionals take part in activities that often leadRead MoreThe Cultural Values Of An Organization Essay1615 Words   |  7 Pagespercentage (e.g., 10%, 70%, etc.) and explain your reasoning. Organizational Culture An organization’s values and norms that guide decisions and are shared throughout the members is the culture of the organization (Daft, 2016, p. 386). Moreover, this culture helps assimilate new members of the organization, as well as assists members of the organization when making decisions that are not dictated by rules or policies. As described by Martinez, Beaulieu, Gibbons, Pronovost, and Wang, organizational cultureRead MorePuberty And Its Effect On The Family1479 Words   |  6 PagesWhen discussing puberty, there have been several studies covering the effects of the onset, timing and duration of puberty. This article reviewed the timing of puberty and its effect on the family unit. This article defined the timing of puberty as one of three categories, early onset, on-time or late maturer. The need for further research in this area was necessary because previous studies often contradicted each other. This particular study was completed using participants that were whi te, highlyRead MoreAutocratic And Participative Leadership Styles1285 Words   |  6 PagesAutocratic and Participative Leadership Leadership styles have significant effects on organizations. For instance, it influences organizational culture and determines how leaders address conflict. Ultimately, it impacts organizational performance. Consequently, leaders must adapt their approach to achieve the desired outcome. Therefore, it is imperative leaders understand and can implement a variety of leadership styles. This essay will describe how an autocratic and participative leader’s styleRead MoreAnalyzing Personal Conflict Management Styles1619 Words   |  7 PagesAnalyzing Personal Conflict Management Style Robert Jeans COM/330 January 23, 2012 David Bonilla Analyzing Personal Conflict Management Style Conflict management is the detriment of many teams or groups in accomplishing its goals. This is because most people do not understand the different conflict styles and how to apply the rules and principles associated with the style you may be dealing with. In this paper I will analyze three of the five management styles discussed in the textbook CommunicationRead MoreCultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper1583 Words   |  7 PagesPersonal Ethics Paper Every day people make decisions that may have profound effect on their personal and/or professional lives as well as the lives of others. The decision people make have a foundation on their personal, cultural, and perhaps organizational values. When these values are in disagreement, an ethical dilemma occurs. This article attempts to explain how personal, cultural, and organizational values play significant parts in decision-making. In addition, the foundation of ethical dilemmasRead MoreEssay on Cultural Values And Personal Ethics in Business1497 Words   |  6 PagesEvery day people make decisions that may have profound effect on their personal and/or professional lives as well as the lives of others. The decision people make have a foundation on their personal, cultural, and perhaps organizational values. When these values are in disagreement, an ethical dilemma occurs. This article attempts to explain how personal, cultural, and organizational values play significant parts in decision-making. In addition, the foundation of ethical dilemmas can often be

Starbucks Brand Introduction Of Starbucks - 1924 Words

Brand Introduction Starbucks was established in 1971 via partners, Jerry Baldwin, Zev Siegl and Gordon Bowker, that were inspired to sell premium coffee product offerings (Starbucks, n.d.). The early years of Starbucks is much different from today considering the firm began as a coffee machine and coffee bean distributor. Roughy a decade later the three partners sold Starbucks to Howard Schultz, which forever changed the direction of the company (Starbucks, n.d.). Shortly after Schultz gained ownership of Starbucks, the firm began to sell premium brewed coffee that the world knows and loves today. After the initial launch of brewed coffee, Starbucks did not expand its product offering for many years. As the company grew in popularity the†¦show more content†¦The firm’s marketing efforts has helped the brand to become regarded as a premium supplier of coffees and a brand that consistently delivers a memorable experience (Starbucks, n.d.). Over the years, Starbucks has become synonymous with corporate social responsibility. The firm s sustainability efforts have focused on the following three facets: community, ethical sourcing and the environment. Starbucks has always taken a collaborative approach with regard to environmental sustainability because the corporation believes it is easier to obtain goals when working with others. The corporation works with non-profit organizations, policy makers, competitors and others in an attempt to advance initiatives that Starbucks and its allies believes are having a significant impact on the entire foodservice industry (Starbucks Global Responsibility Report, 2013). It is apparent that Starbucks is more than a coffee brand. They are a company that brings together consumers from various communities to enjoy coffee. Moreover, Starbucks aims to create a memorable experience for each customer that visits the store. Lastly, the firm is a role model for corporate social responsibility for firms within and outside of the coffee industry. Brand Audit Starbucks’ named was inspired via the â€Å"first mate in Herman Melville’s Moby Dick† (Starbucks Company Profile, 2015). The firm’s logo was inspired via the sea and thus, it features aShow MoreRelatedStarbucks Chap 7 Malhotra1121 Words   |  5 Pages Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. STARBUCKS: Staying Local While Going Global Through Marketing Research Named after the first mate in the novel Moby-Dick, Starbucks is the largest coffeehouse company in the world. As of 2010, there were more than 16,700 stores in over 50 countries including more than 8,850 company-operated stores and more than 7,850 licensed stores. The company’s objective is to establish Starbucks as the most recognized and respected brand in the world. It expects to achieveRead MoreEssay about Case Brief- Starbucks: Delivering Customer Service623 Words   |  3 PagesCase Brief- Starbucks: Delivering Customer Service Introduction Starbucks is a successful premium coffee retailer. Its target market sets as well-educated, white- color patrons between the ages of 25 and 44. There are three components of the brand, live coffee, service, and atmosphere. However, its brand image is losing while they focus on retail expansion. SWOT analysis [pic] Define the problem Starbucks loses its original image for target and customer satisfaction. Identify the alternativesRead MoreStarbucks974 Words   |  4 PagesWho are the target markets for starbucks? How do they differ from those of other coffee shops? Starbucks primarily targets coffee drinkers. These segments comprise of adults, young adults and Kids and Teens. Starbucks offers its customers a total brand experience which stretches beyond the consumption of the bevergae. The experience includes excellent customer service, gold card loyalty program, specialty coffee drinks, unique drink names, its dedication towards social responsibility, elegant lookingRead MoreStarbucks Corporation and Brand Loyalty955 Words   |  4 PagesStarbucks Corporation and Brand Loyalty In today’s highly competitive business markets, a consumer’s loyalty to a brand often adds reassurance to the company’s stable and lasting position in the marketing world. As the new year continues to unravel, brands must maintain strong marketing strategies in order to keep their current buyers interested as well as capture the eye of new buyers. Brand loyalty after all, is the consumer’s conscious and unconscious decision, expressed through intentionRead MoreStarbucks s Marketing Plan For Starbucks1554 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction and Overview Founded in 1971 at Pike’s Place Market in Seattle, Washington, Starbucks coffee went from a high-quality, do-it-yourself whole bean retailer to an international 6.4 billion dollar empire. As of 2005, there were 10,500 stores worldwide where customers could enjoy a cup of the internationally recognized coffee at a convenient location. Starbucks achieved this through a series of strategic movements all while offering a great in-store experience and quality coffee. AfterRead MoreChallenges Faced By Starbucks : Swot Analysis1547 Words   |  7 PagesID: NAME: SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY: DATE: TABLE OF CONTENTS Part 1.1 Introduction of the report Overview of the company Products adapting strategy Problems associated with clients Challenges faced by Starbucks Part 1.2 Situational analysis SWOT analysis PESTEL analysis Mc Kinsey 7s ASSESSMENT 5 PART 1.1: INTRODUCTION OF THE REPORT: In this section we have to discuss the company brief introduction such as how the company is facing client’s problems and how this company suggestsRead MoreNadler and Tushmans Formula to Restructure the Starbucks Corporation764 Words   |  3 PagesNadler Tushmans formula to restructure the Starbucks Corporation Introduction According to Nadler Tushman, there are six strategic imperatives for future organizations: the need to focus the companys business portfolio; abbreviate strategic life cycles; create go-to-market flexibility; enhance competitive innovation; and manage intra-enterprise cannibalism (Nadler Tushman 1999). One company that is must restructure itself is the Starbucks Corporation, which has begun to eliminate unprofitableRead MoreStarbucks Case Study Analysis1304 Words   |  6 PagesCase Study Analysis: Starbucks: Delivering Customer Service Anitra Joiner Marketing 300C.1 Dr. Laura Pogue May 29, 2011 Specialty-coffeehouse culture is well interwoven into the fabric of American society at this point and we can thank Starbucks for ushering in the phenomenon. Back when three coffee connoisseurs assembled to open the first Starbucks store in Seattle, I’m sure they could not imagine its behemoth future. With the vision of Howard Schultz, Starbucks has grown to become oneRead MoreStarbucks Brand1422 Words   |  6 PagesStarbucks Corporation: Managing a High Growth Brand 1 One of the main keys for success for Starbucks in building the brand is their focus on quality, starting by the quality of the whole bean, the freshly roasted gourmet beans, its packaging, transportation, until its brewing. This has served as a main differentiator between Starbucks and other brands. Starbucks has succeeded to position itself as a unique quality coffee provider. Starbucks also managed to build its brand with the perceptionRead MoreSwot Analysis Of Starbucks1275 Words   |  6 Pages Starbucks Coffee SWOT Analysis Boyd Watson Columbia Southern University â€Æ' INTRODUCTION Starbucks Coffee Company is known on a global level for its retails stores, specialty operations, packaged coffee and beverage brands. They are the largest coffeehouse business in the world that has made huge advancements in all the major markets. Starbucks Coffee chain is strong but it always facing major threats in various markets around the world. For Starbucks to keep up with a competitive advantage

Pregnancy Smoking and the Unborn Child Free Essays

This paper discusses the different effects of smoking to pregnant woman. The paper is divided into three parts. First part of the paper shows the statistical data available in the United States about smoking. We will write a custom essay sample on Pregnancy Smoking and the Unborn Child or any similar topic only for you Order Now Second part of the paper discusses the different experiments that had been done by experts to compare the babies that are not exposed to smoking. Lastly, the third part of the paper shows the other complications of exposure to smoking. A conclusion is also provided in the last part of the paper Smoking is considered as a habit that had contributed negative effects not only to pregnant women but also to people who are not pregnant. There are two ways of exposure to cigarette smoke. First is the exposure through first hand smoking, where a person inhales the smoke through smoking and the second hand smoking where a person inhales the smoke from the cigarette of another smoker. According to statistics from the Center for Disease Control and Development (CDC) (2006) from the Women and Tobacco, cigarette had been the cause of death of 178,000. Further investigation shows that ninety percent of women who had lung cancers can be attributed to smoking. Women who smoke have an increased risk for diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease and pulmonary diseases. Looking at the National Statistics from the Center for Disease Control and Development, there is an estimate of 18.1% of women with ages 18 and above is cigarette smokers. Statistics also show that there is an estimate of 18% pregnant women from the ages of 15 to 44 years. As stated above, smoking does not only involve the first hand smoker but also the second hand smoker. Looking at the statistics from the CDC (2006), second hand smoke exposure had declined. It was further explained that the levels of cotinine had fallen down by 70% for the years 1988 to 1991 and 2001-2002. However, even though there has been a decline on the exposure, 126 million non-smoking Americans both children and adult are exposed to this second hand exposure. Children according to the figures from CDC are more exposed than adults. To be exact, 60% of the children in the age bracket of 3 to 11 years old are exposed to second hand smoke. To understand fully the implications on the effect of smoking to the child, an investigation was done by the proponent of the study. There have been several studies that had been made in the past that can further explain the effect of smoking to children. Josephine Thomas had made an experiment regarding the exposure of children to smoking. Based on the report written by Thomas (2000), the effects that might be experienced by children who were exposed to smoke are infertility, coagulation problems, obstetric complications such as extra uterine pregnancy and placenta previa, and intrauterine growth retardation. Results on the study had also shown that unborn children who had been exposed to tobacco smoke could indicate a negative behavior for toddlers and smoking experimentation among adolescents. Mothers who had smoked during pregnancy had scored their children high on toddler negativity, although there are other factors that might influence the children to do so but being exposed to cigarettes had shown that the data proved that the children high on toddler negativity had been exposed. The experts had also experimented on the early experimentation of adolescents with regard to smoking. The results of the study are not clear enough to know. However, experts are speculating that nervous system damage could have happened because of maternal smoking. The damage can be expressed as inattention aggression, depression and anxiety. Another experiment that had been done to compare the effects of maternal smoking exposure is the possible genetic mutation chromosomes of the babies. Based on the results of the study, there are 12.1% smokers and 3.5% non-smokers who had shown a structural chromosomal abnormaities, 10.5% smokers and 8% non-smokers had shown chromosomal instability and 15.7% smokers and 10.1% non-smokers had shown chromosomal lesions. Among the three changed items, the chromosomal instability and chromosomal lesions pose a risk of cancer and blood malignancies to the child who had been exposed to smoke. Lannero et al. (2006) have another experiment that can be associated with the comparison of smokers and non-smokers. The experts had studied 4,089 infants and had observed the babies up to two months. Questionnaires was used by the proponents in order to determine the status of the infants.   Based on the results of the study, it has been proven that maternal smoking increase the risk of recurrent wheezing for babies up to two years of age. Unborn and newlyborn babies are prone to recurrent wheezing. This can also be diagnosed as asthma by the doctors. Lastly, Rebagliato et al (1995) had correlated the exposure of the babies to smoke and the weight of the baby born. The experiment was done in Spain. The duration of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at home, work, vehicles and Public places had been collected through a questionnaire. Based on the results there is a very small difference in the weight of the child that had been exposed. Looking at the results closely, these small difference had been a basis that there is a growth retardation to the child exposed to maternal smoking. There are many more experiments that could have been done by the experts to prove their point about exposure to maternal smoking. Healthgoods had shown all the possible effects of maternal smoking. Smoking is said to limit the amount of nutrients and oxygen that would react the unborn child. According to the American Lung Association, maternal smoking brings about several negative effects to the baby. This include miscarriages, still births, very low birth weight and could also result to a sudden infant death syndrome. Other implications of having been exposed to maternal smoke is that the newly-born children suffers more from lung problems, learning deficiencies and behavioral problems. As stated above, behavioral problems are one of the implications of tobacco prenatal exposure. Ear infections are also possible. Breast Feeding mothers are also discouraged to smoke because the chemicals in the cigarettes could enter the breast milk of the mother such as nicotine and carbon monoxide and this can be passed on to the baby. The child and the mother are closely linked together because when women are pregnant, the child and the mother share the same body, inhales the same air and eats the same food. Having a child is very sensitive because whatever the mother does to herself affects the baby. If the mother is a cigarette addict, then she must try to curb her habits well to avoid putting that child that she is carrying at risk. There are many implications, and complications that the child can experience if he or she is exposed to smoking. As much as possible, it is really not advisable to smoke or be surrounded by smokers if a particular person is pregnant. Not smoking a cigarette helps the mother avoid the first hand smoke exposure. However in public places, mothers should take good care that they are not exposed to smokers. Second Hand smoke exposure also has an effect on the baby. The website Healthgoods.com had enumerated several tips to stop smoking to help mothers avoid risking their child’s life. It would be helpful for pregnant women who are addicted to cigarettes to read websites, pamphlets or ask advice from a doctor to help them stop their habits of smoking. REFERENCES Centers for Disease Control and Prevention   (November 2006). Women and Tobacco. Retrieved last January 20, 2008 from Department of Health and Human Services. Website: http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/women_tobacco.htm March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation (2007). Smoking and Pregnancy. Retrieved last January 20, 2008 from Health Goods. Website: Medical Studies/Trials (9 March 2005). Maternal Smoking During Preganancy Associated with Chromosomal Abnormalities. Retrieved last January 22, 2008 from   News Medical.net. Website: http://www.news-medical.net/?id=8330 Thomas, J. (2000) Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy Associated With Negative Toddler Behavior and Early Smoking Experimentation. Retrieved last November 22, 2008 from National Institute on Drug Abuse. Website: http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol16N1/Maternal.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention   (October 2006). Trends in Secondhand Smoke Exposure Among U.S. Nonsmokers: Progress and Gaps. Retrieved last January 20, 2008 from Department of Health and Human Services. Website: http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/Factsheets/SecondhandTrends.htm Rebagliato,M., Florey, C.D. and Bolumar, F. (1995) Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke in Nonsmoking Pregnant Women in Relation to Birthweight.   Retrieved last January 20, 2008 from   American Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 142 No. 5 pp. 531-537 . Website: http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/142/5/531 How to cite Pregnancy Smoking and the Unborn Child, Essay examples

Analyze and Evaluate Event Management †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Analyze and Evaluate Event Management. Answer: Introduction Event Management refers to the process of managing all the operations for the effective organization of a particular event or program (Yeoman et al. 2012). For the success of a particular event, effective contribution from the human resources is required. In addition, it needs to be mentioned that there are various stakeholders involved with a particular event. In this particular process, certain factors create their effects on the decision-making process of different stakeholders of the events. Thus, it is necessary to consider all these aspects at the time of managing a particular event. Discussion The main aim of this essay is to analyze and evaluate various aspects of a particular event. It was an Annual Community Function. The concept of the community function was to arrange such kind of a program that would be suitable for everyone of the community irrespective of age group. The major activities of that community function were group dance performance, play, recitation, magic show and a band performance. In addition, there was arrangements for a dinner party for all the community members. The whole program took place at the community hall. The major stakeholders of that community function were the organizing community, sponsors, and members of the community, local authorities, service contractor, performers, participants, entertainers and others. The main objective of this community function was to effectively plan the event so that all the community members can participate and enjoy the program. In order to achieve this particular objective, it is required to take some steps. They are number of people attending, number of participants, take contribution from the sponsors and determination of the profit. It is required for every event to have some specific objectives as they keep the event organizers focus towards the achievement of target. Apart from this, these objectives helped the organizers of the community function to measure the outcome of the event for organization of any future events (Quinn 2013). Thus, the scope of this event is related to the objectives of the community function. One major scope of the community program was to make optimal use of the required resources that are human resources, physical resources and financial resources. Another scope was to complete the whole program within time. It can be seen that the event organizers had the scope to complete the event as per planning (Lotem et al. 2013). From the above discussion, it can be seen that different stakeholders were involved in the event management process of the community function. It is natural that different types of decisions were needed to be made for the effective complementation of the community function. There are various principles of psychology that affected the decision-making process for the community function. There are different theories that helped in the analysis of the effects of various principles on the decision-making process of the stakeholders. Some of those major theories are Csikszentmihalyi and Flow Theory, Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and others. Some of those theories are discussed below: The above figure shows the various aspects of the theory of Csikszentmihalyi and Flow. This theory analyzes the psychological situation of the organizations when they take a particular job. From the above diagram, it can be seen that there are many psychological situation of human mind like anxiety, worry, control, boredom and others (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, and Nakamura 2014). It needs to be mentioned that the community program will have different psychological effect on the major stakeholders. During the time of the community function, the organizers were very much anxious about the success of the program. At the same time, they were trying to establish control over the whole program. However, the major concern of the service contractor was to maintain the flow of work so that there is not any inconvenience in the event. At the same time, the spectators were in relaxed mood as they were there to enjoy the program. From the above discussion, it can be seen that there are five steps in the theory of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. Different needs of the different stakeholders can be described with the help of this diagram. The particular organization organized the community function out of the social needs of them. Self-fulfillment need worked for the stakeholders like service contractor, performers, entertainers and the program organizers (Cherry 2014). This is because all the major stakeholders of this community functions put their physical as well as mental effort for the successful completion of the community function. Apart from this, the achievements of esteem needs created effects on the stakeholders of the company. The main reason is that the feeling of accomplishment would give them prestige in the community and the workplace. These are the major psychological effects on the major stakeholders of the product. Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be seen that the process of event management has many steps like development of the event concept, development of objectives, scope setting and others. Thus, it is required for the organizers to consider all these factors. The above study also shows the effects of some psychological and social factors on the decision-making process of the key stakeholders. For this analysis, two major theories used are Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and the theory of Csikszentmihalyi and Flow. The above discussion shows that self-fulfillment need and esteem need have effects on the decision-making process of the stakeholders. References Cherry, K., 2014. Hierarchy of needs.The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. About. com Guide.| Link. Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S. and Nakamura, J., 2014. Flow. InFlow and the foundations of positive psychology(pp. 227-238). Springer Netherlands. Lester, D., 2013. Measuring Maslow's hierarchy of needs.Psychological Reports,113(1), pp.15-17. Lotem, A., Cohen, G. and Naon, L.B., Skybox Secutiry Inc., 2013.Method for simulation aided security event management. U.S. Patent 8,407,798. Nakamura, J. and Csikszentmihalyi, M., 2014. The concept of flow. InFlow and the foundations of positive psychology(pp. 239-263). Springer Netherlands. Quinn, B., 2013.Key concepts in event management. Sage. Yeoman, I., Robertson, M., Ali-Knight, J., Drummond, S. and McMahon-Beattie, U. eds., 2012.Festival and events management. Routledge.

Winchesters Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017 A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses

Introduction Cities are not only increasingly competing to host international cultural events to improve their image and stimulate urban infrastructural development, but also to revitalize their economies and attract more visitors and investment. This phenomenon can be associated with the effects of a globalized world economy (Hede Kellett, 2011), as well as a general increase in competition between cities, regions and countries for the attention of noteworthy stakeholders, including customers, investors and policy makers (Richards Wilson, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Winchester’s Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017: A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Available literature demonstrates that since the 1980s, a rising number of cities are becoming interested in attracting major international events as they are perceived as valuable vect ors of economic and tourism development, as well as ensuring sustainable development by stimulating ecological, social and economic benefits Proposal Aim Objectives As parts of its events-led regeneration strategy, Winchester City aims to successfully bid for the rights to co-host the 7th World Summit on Arts and Culture coming up in 2017. The objectives are to attract more visitors and to arouse cultural consumption among the population, while positioning Winchester City as a global tourist and cultural destination Overview/Background Information The World Summit on Arts and Culture The World Summit on Arts and Culture is a triennial international event of its kind, which serves as â€Å"†¦a platform for national arts councils, ministries of culture, arts and cultural policy decision makers, artists and community leaders to discuss strategies affecting public support for arts and culture at a national and global level† (IFACCA, 2011a para. 2). Members and affiliates of International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (IFACCA) are encouraged to participate and the conventions are open to any individual with an interest in national and international artistic and cultural trajectories. This mega-event, co-hosted by the national arts council of the winning country and IFACCA, attracts an estimated 500 delegates from over 80 countries into the hosting city for a period ranging from 4-5 days to discuss the issues at hand (IFACCA, 2011b). International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies Inaugurated in December 2000, the International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (IFACCA) owns the right to co-host the World Summit on Arts and Culture with the National Arts Council of any member country that has succeeded to bid for the rights to hold the event. This implies that IFACCA is the event owner and one of its core responsibilities is to invite the national councils of member countries to submit bidding documents/p roposals to host the event. IFACCA is also responsible for determining a set process for bidding and the schedule and time-frame by which the bidding process should be completed.Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Bidding City: Winchester Winchester, England, is a vivacious â€Å"†¦heritage destination just an hour south west of London, with world class attractions and architecture including a magnificent cathedral, award-winning pubs and restaurants and a tempting array of independent shops† (Winchester City Council, 2012 para. 1). Winchester is the perfect destination for hosting international cultural events and Expos due to its rich culturally-diverse medieval settings, surrounded by magnificent rolling countryside and tranquil Hampshire villages. The city has a resident population of about 45,000 people, and is home to â€Å"†¦a number of large public sector employers, including the University of Winchester, Winchester Prison, Royal Hampshire County Hospital, Hampshire County Council and Winchester City Council† (Hampshire County Council, 2011 p. 7). Analysis of the Internal Strengths Weaknesses of the Summit This section aims to critically evaluate the internal factors to the global summit, which could heavily influence the trajectory and outcome of the bidding process, particularly in relation to the focussed attempt by Winchester to bid for the rights to host the 2017 summit. Strengths This international artistic and cultural event â€Å"†¦provides opportunities for attendees to have memorable experiences, communities to build social capital, and for the governments to induce new income into their economies through tourism and business activities† (Hede Kellett, 2011 p. 987). The summit is known to provide a sense of flexibility to fixed structures, as well as delivering a source of spectacle which adds to the ima ge value and reputation of cities. In particular, this summit often embodies a less costly means of distinguishing places, encourage people to visit a place more than once, and produce substantial media interest that could be used by the event organizers to market the city through the prism of internationalization or globalization (Richards Wilson, 2004; Leonardsen et al, 2010). Weaknesses The global summit, as is the case with other international mega-events, has its own risks, which must be critically evaluated and contingency plans drawn to ensure successful hosting of the event. Among the inherent risks noted in hosting an event of this nature and scope, the event organizers may fail to secure the required funding to deliver the summit, not mentioning that that the organizers may also fail to engage the local population, resulting in a scenario where the event is incapable of attracting a wider audience (Schneider, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Winchester’s Bid to Host the 7th World Summit on Art Culture 2017: A Critical Analyses of Strengths Weaknesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Being a global artistic and cultural outreach program, the summit is always faced with the risks associated with poor artistic programming, failure to attract headline performers and artists and, consequently, failure to secure the Summit’s intended legacy. Lastly, it is well known that international cultural events often fail to attract the political support necessary to make the hosting of these events a success (Schneider, 2010). Effective contingency plans must therefore be available to ensure these risks are successfully dealt with. External Analyses of the Bidding City There are a number of predominant external factors which could unequivocally influence Winchester City’s bid to be accorded the rights to host the upcoming summit. This section aims to utilize a numb er of strategic planning tools, including PESTLE, SWOT and Porter’s 5 Forces analyses, to critically evaluate Winchester’s position to competitively bid for, and host, the summit in 2017. PESTLE Analysis Bidding cities have their own weaknesses and strengths that intrinsically influence the current and future performance of their bidding processes. By employing the PESTLE framework, the event organizers for the 2017 bid are able to effectively assess the current environment, as well as future shifts in the environment that are bound to predominantly influence Winchester’s attempt to successfully bid for, and host, the 2017 event. It is widely expected that the adoption of the PESTLE framework, which details the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors affecting or influencing an entity (Henry, 2008), will go a long way to assist Winchester maintain a competitive advantage over other candidate cities for the upcoming summit. Con sequently, the results of the PESTLE analysis are presented below in an attempt to underline the external factors influencing Winchester’s bid. Political The government is unswerving in its resolve to ensure that the United Kingdom (UK) is in a position to aggressively bid for, and host, major international sporting and cultural events, not mentioning that it acknowledges the fact that bids are reinforced if the government is ready and willing to lend active support. The ultimate event organizer, which is the UK Art and Culture Council, is likely to continue to maintain a powerful control over the global artistic and cultural scene, with more centralized sponsorship and media deals, which in many instances translate into valuable income streams for the Council. Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 summit also draws considerable support from the UK’s strong reputation to successfully bid and host major international events such as the Capital of Culture event held i n 2008 in Liverpool. Lastly, Winchester enjoys strong public/private partnerships, which will continue to play a substantial role in the planning and funding of national, regional and international events (Leonardsen, 2007; Maughan Branchini, 2004).Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A constraint to Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 summit comes in the form of a shifting focus of central government funding, which will persist to generate an uncertainty in relation to public funding trajectories, particularly in relation to community and cultural-oriented activities funded by the public purse (Jackson, 2010). Economic Hosting the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture will trigger an increase in tourism and investment in the UK in general and Winchester in particular. Such an increase will continue to form a critical component in the revenue generation of the city and the wider local economy. By bidding to host the 2017 summit, Winchester is setting out on a journey of unprecedented economic and infrastructural regeneration in which art and culture will be used to purposefully transform a city with a rich cultural history. This event is also likely to stimulate the globalization of culture and access of British artistic and cultural artefacts and presentati ons to international markets. Additionally, the interaction between the delegates attending the summit and local businesses is likely to spur economic growth in terms of food purchases, accommodation, conference services and investment opportunities (Westerbeek et al, 2002; Maughan Branchini, 2004). This interaction is also likely to elevate the image and reputation of the city to international visitors and investors. The current global economic climate, however, presents a constraint to Winchester’s bid to successfully bid and host the 2017 event, in large part because the trend continues to restrict the growth and expansion of many artistic and cultural activities due to a noted reduction in leisure spending as the UK and international economy continues to contract (Jackson, 2010). Social The UK’s population has being ageing, and research demonstrates that the elderly identifies more with artistic and cultural events than the youth, who are passionately interested i n sporting events (Schneider, 2010). This observation creates a ready audience to consume the summit should the event owners grant the rights to host the 2017 summit to Winchester due to the leisure interests of the ageing population. Winchester city has a long tradition of a being a world heritage site, thus it can be positively argued that the attitudes and values of the local population are aligned to the importance of preserving culture and various art forms, as well as employing culture to achieve local and national development targets (Schneider, 2010). The attitudes of the local population regarding culture and art imply that the global event will have a ready audience. These characteristics are likely to add fire to the event, opening up new possibilities and opportunities for the hosting city, particularly in relation to occasioning more tangible and intangible benefits, as well as raising local confidence and self-belief and promoting connectivity, partnership and a superf icial-facing focus. However, the bidding team takes cognizance of the fact that it must prepare mitigating measures to tackle the rising number of security threats, particularly the threats posed by international terrorist networks against Western targets. The ageing population may also lack disposable income to attend such events due to the fact that they are no longer in active employment. Technological Winchester City boasts of modern state-of-the-art conference and convention facilities, with ready broadband internet access portals, digitals TVs, telephone portals and other value additions intended to make the living experience in these facilities memorable. It is home to renowned world class universities such as the University of Winchester, implying that research, development and innovation are some of the critical assets held by the city. Greater exploitation of these critical assets is likely to significantly benefit the hosting of the event, particularly in relation to cont ent development, enhanced accessibility, communications and marketing. Additionally, Winchester County Council, in conjunction with institutions of higher learning and other public institutions, has embarked on an ambitious program to introduce new media technologies. It is of substantial interest to note that the continued access to and investment in these modern media technologies with the aim to reduce operational costs, improve quality of life, and stimulate more innovative concepts (Leonardsen, 2007). Legal The current government legislations relating to hosting of international sports and cultural events demands that event organizers efficiently utilize resources, minimize waste and desecration of vital assets, and effectively respond to underlying issues in climate change. Particularly, the event organizers are obliged by various British statutes and Winchester City bylaws to, among other tings, reduce carbon emissions while hosting an international event using a range of mea sures, such as green travel plans, energy saving strategies, waste and noise reduction, sustainable consumption patterns and exploring the alternatives available to use renewable energy (Richards Wilson, 2004). The main constraints to these legal requirements, however, are lack of awareness of the issues and statutes relating to climate change, potential costs implications involved in implementing the directives, and the absence of a way that could be used by the event organizers to recoup the tangible and intangible resources used on these initiatives. Environmental Winchester in particular and the UK in general have stable weather patterns, making the hosting of such a global event a reality. Most conference and convention facilities located in Winchester are energy-efficient, implying that the event organizers will not incur further costs related to a lack of technical capabilities of the hosting venues. However, the current global environmental outlook, characterized by such ph enomena as global warming and pollution, will ultimately trigger a move towards more environmentally friendly products and processes – a move that may lessen the bidding city’s economic and social regeneration consequential to development due to short-term costs related to providing environmentally friendly products and processes for the delegates and audience attending the event (Martins Sera, 2011). SWOT Analysis Strategic management research demonstrates that â€Å"†¦the use of SWOT analysis allows organizations to maximize their strengths, minimize their weaknesses, take advantage of their opportunities and overcome their weaknesses† (Fine, 2009 p. 3). This section aims to analyse the opportunities and threats (external factors) influencing the success of Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. Opportunities for Winchester The success of Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 international artistic and cultural even t will be intrinsically influenced by the city’s innovative funding models, which necessitate the attainment of synergies and competitive leverage between the public and public sectors. A good example includes a cross subsidy between major supermarket chains operating in the area and Winchester County Council to fund new infrastructure expansion programs. Second, there exist a strong desire and willingness for major stakeholders to network and partner to make the dream of hosting the 2017 event a reality. Networking, partnership and sharing best practices is overwhelmingly perceived as an opportunity by the event organizers and conference facility owners, particularly in the light of ensuring that those who will participate in the event will have a memorable experience. Third, the organizing committee is of the view that the hosting of this event in Winchester will act as a significant income generator, while ensuring the city achieves national and international exposure (Leo nardsen, 2007). Lastly, there exist a real opportunity for the local population and delegates to facilitate and promote knowledge transfer by encouraging information sharing for the benefits of entrenching a lasting legacy for Winchester, particularly as a renowned heritage site. Threats for Winchester There has been ongoing speculation about a decline in public sector funding for the hosting of such events, mainly because of the current political and economic climate, as well as the channelling of investments elsewhere (Jackson, 2010). This speculation has occasioned increased risk and uncertainty, particularly in relation to the issue of outlining funding decisions, and may impact negatively on the event organizers’ capacity to access finance from banks and other lending institutions for specific projects and developments. Additionally, the widespread recognition by the international audience that the UK’s economy is on a downturn may impact negatively on Winchesterà ¢â‚¬â„¢s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. Indeed, the current economic recession may translate into lost sponsorship deals for upcoming major international events. Porter’s 5 Forces Analysis The Porter’s 5 Forces model is one of the mostly used analytical frameworks in evaluating the competitive external environment with a view to understand the dynamics of the competitive structure in a particular sector or industry (Henry, 2008). The five forces that determine the competitive nature and overall long-term profitability of the sector include: ‘threat of market entry by new entrants; threat of alternatives; bargaining power of buyers; bargaining power of suppliers, and; the extent of rivalry between existing competitors (Henry, 2008). The decision to host the World Summit on Arts and Culture in a particular candidate city is ultimately made by IFACCA, implying that the international body cannot be evaluated against other bodies and agencies t o determine the level of competitiveness since IFACCA operates a monopoly in announcing decisions on successful cities to host the event. In terms of the competition faced by Winchester in ensuring that it is given the rights to host the 2017 edition of the event, the event organizers recognizes the presence of more developed and culture-centric cities bidding for the same event. To win the event, therefore, Winchester must develop the capacity to anticipate the moves made by the other candidate cities and also be conscious of the probability of having to compete with other new entrants for the rights to host the event. The conference/convention owners also form a critical component of Winchester’s matrix in bidding for the event because these owners are perceived as the suppliers of the facilities that will facilitate the event. Consequently, the relationship established by these suppliers and the event organizers for Winchester’s bid will ultimately determine the suc cess of the city in requesting for the rights to hold the event. A Critical Review of the Key Success Factors for the Event The evaluation done in the preceding sections of this bidding proposal identifies at least 5 success factors for Winchester’s bid to host the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture, namely: availability of modern conference facilities; solid foundation of public support for Winchester to pursue the bid to host the event; excellent record for handling a large influx of visitors/delegates to any kind of international event; excellent record of bidding for, and winning, the opportunity to host major international events, and; the presence of a target audience that values arts and culture. In the availability of modern facilities, this analysis has demonstrated that Winchester has a number of modern conference centres fitted with the latest amenities, including round-the-clock broadband internet access, telephone facilities and accommodation. The event owners , according to Swart Bob (2004), must be fully satisfied that a candidate city has the necessary facilities and infrastructure before committing the bid to host the event to that city. The support of the local population is of immense importance in bidding to host an international event of this nature because of the fact that it is the public and visitors who are largely expected to consume the presentations made during the event, hence giving the event its economic and social dimension. The UK has an outstanding record of handling a large influx of visitors/delegates to any kind of international event. This record may form the basis for consideration of Winchester to host the 2017 edition, particularly against the backdrop of ensuring the safety and security of delegates in a time when international terrorism is on the increase (Heslop et al, 2010). Equally, the UK has an outstanding record of bidding for, and winning, the opportunity to host major international events, with a maj or hall mark being the hosting of the 2012 Olympics Games in London. The outstanding record of winning the rights to host major events implies that there are many examples of best practice that the bidding team for the 2017 event could draw upon to enhance their chances of success. Lastly, the city prides itself of a huge following of artistic and cultural lovers, particularly due to its ageing population. This audience will greatly assist in bringing the material, economic and spiritual support needed for Winchester to win the bid for the hosting of the 2017 event. An Analysis of Strategic Options Available to Ensure Successful Hosting Based on a review of existing literature, the PESTLE analysis, the SWOT analysis and Porter’s 5 Forces analysis, the event organizers have identified two strategic priorities that need to be effectively addressed for Winchester city to succeed in its attempt to bid for the rights to hold the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. These priorit ies, which have been identified using the Ansoff’s Product/Market Matrix, bears some level of overlap as discussed below. These priorities, if well addressed, will form the basis for justifying why IFACCA should give the rights to hold the 2017 event to Winchester City. It should be noted that the matrix is basically a tool that assists business entities to decide their product and market growth strategy guided by the assumption that the entity’s attempt to grow intrinsically depend on whether it market new or existing products/services in new or existing markets (Jackson, 2010). Priority 1: Winchester aspires to become a world cultural and heritage site, and have some of the most exquisite locations to show in the whole of UK. The local population and the political base of the city readily identify with artistic and cultural-related activities and discourses as the city is usually evaluated under the lens of art and culture (Jackson, 2010). The strategic priority, the refore, is to reinforce the already existing connections between the city and art/culture. This can be done using Ansoff’s growth strategy of market penetration by selling the existing artistic and cultural attractions to the local and international audience. The hosting of the 2017 event will therefore act as a catalyst for the city to secure its dominance of being a world cultural city through the employment of various strategies, including the creation of awareness about the city and its product offerings, advertising, and increasing the number of people visiting the city. Here, IFACCA is justified to give the rights to host the 2017 event to Winchester due to the city’s already existing reputation as a major world heritage site, a local population that readily identifies with artistic and cultural events, and a broad political support for the event. Priority 2: Winchester city has a relatively good level of overlap between tourism and the hosting of important natio nal and international events. However, it is generally felt that closer collaboration between these critical variable could serve as an important ingredient in leveraging substantial economic and social benefits for the city. The strategic priority, therefore, is for the bidding team to come up with viable ways to bring all stakeholders on board in attempts aimed at marketing major tourist attractions in the city through the hosting of major events. This can be successfully achieved using Ansoff’s concept of market development in that local stakeholders will be seeking to sell existing tourist attractions located in the city to new markets brought about by converging local people and international visitors into the city to participate in major events (Morden, 2007). Here, Winchester is justified to receive the rights to host the 2017 summit due to its ability to come up with new and enticing tourist attractions, as well as new ways of repackaging the sites to ensure they leav e a memorable experience to visitors. Recommendations to Strategy Approach The various analysis conducted in this bidding proposal have exposed a number of weaknesses that need to be addressed to reinforce Winchester’s chances of successfully bidding for the rights to host the 2017 World Summit on Art and Culture. To effectively deal with the issue of improving access to funding opportunities, the bidding team need to take contingency plans aimed at leveraging wider investment opportunities and identifying additional sources of funding rather than over relying on public funding streams. For instance, the team could develop innovative funding models such as raffles and competitions to raise the capital needed to organize a successful bid. To alter the public and the event owners’ perceptions about the ailing UK economy, the bid team, in conjunction with other interested stakeholders, could organize joint marketing initiatives on television and other communication medium s with the aim to portray the city as a place of resilient economic and cultural growth and regeneration driven by the presence of world-class cultural and heritage sites, as well as other major attractions such as a huge concentration of renowned public sector employers, including the University of Winchester (Hampshire County Council, 2011). Conclusion A strand of existing literature (Westerbeek et al, 2002; Martins Sera, 2011) demonstrates that cities are increasingly bidding to host major international events due to the positive economic and social ramifications associated with these events. These events have also been positively correlated with rapid infrastructural development and identity and image building for the hosting cities (Swart Bob, 2004). To achieve these benefits, however, cities need to employ strategic management and decision-making tools to inform their bidding and hosting strengths and weaknesses, as well as to establish existing priorities that could be effe ctively used to capitalize on existing opportunities while attempting to alter the perceived threats into probable alternatives. This bidding proposal concludes that Winchester City, Britain, has all what it takes to successfully bid for, and host, the 2017 World Summit on Arts and Culture. The justification for this conclusion is heavily derived on the various analyses undertaken in preceding sections of this document, as well as the analysis of critical success factors for Winchester/s bid. While some analyses demonstrates the city’s innate strengths in holding the event, some critical success factors, such as the availability of modern conference facilities, public support for art and culture, and an excellent record for holding such international events, will inarguably influence IFACCA’s decision on which city is best suited to host the 2017 edition of the event. These factors are unique to Winchester, thus there is a predominant possibility that city is destined to win the rights to host the event. List of References Fine, L. G. (2009). The SWOT Analysis: Using your Strengths to Overcome Weaknesses, Using your Opportunities to Overcome Threats. New York: CreateSpace. Hampshire County Council (2011). Winchester Town Access Plan. Web. Hede, A. M., Kellett, P (2011). Marketing Communications for Special Events: Analyzing Managerial Practice, Consumer Perceptions and Preferences. European Journal of Marketing, 45 (6), pp. 987-1004. Henry, A (2008). Understanding Strategic Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press Heslop, L. A., Nadeau, J., O’Reilly, N (2010). China and the Olympics: Views of Insiders and Outsiders. International Marketing Review, 27 (4), pp. 404-433. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2011a). 7th World Summit on Arts and Culture 2017 – Bidding Guidelines to be released. Web. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2011). IFACCA Announces Host for 6th World S ummit on Arts and Culture. Web. International Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies (2012). Web. Jackson, M. O. (2010). Social and Economic Networks. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Leonardsen, D. (2007). Planning of Mega Events: Experiences and Lessons. Planning Theory Practice, 8 (1), pp. 11-30. Martins, A., Serra, A. (2011). Market Impact of International Sporting and Cultural Events. Journal of Economics Finance, 35 (4), pp. 382-416. Maughan, C., Bianchini, F (2004). The Economic and Social Impact of Cultural Festivals in the East Midlands of England. Web. Morden, T. (2007). Principles of Strategic Management. London. Ashgate Publishing Richards, G., Wilson J. (2004). The Impact of Cultural Events on City Image: Rotterdam, Cultural Capital of Europe 2001. Urban Studies, 41 (10), pp. 1931-1951. Schneider, C. P. (2010). The unrealized Potential of Cultural Diplomacy: â€Å"Best Practices† and what could be, if only. Journal of Arts Management, Law S ociety, 39 (4), pp. 260-279. Swart, K., Bob, U. (2004). The Seductive Discourse of Development: The Cape Town 2004 Olympic Bid. Third World Quarterly, 25 (7), pp. 1311-1324. Westerbeek, H. M., Turner, P., Ingerson, L. (2002). Key Success Factors in Bidding for Hall Mark Sporting Events. International Marketing Review, 19 (3), pp. 303-322. Winchester City Council (2012). Visit Winchester. Web. 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Definitions on leadership defined by selected authors were summarized into table 1. Year Author Definition of Leadership 1957 Hemphill Coons Leadership is the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. 1957 Stogdill Leadership is an influential activity to others or organization to achieve the target set by the leader. 1969 Bowers Leadership is an activity process of interpersonal relationship; others behavior is influenced through this process to achieve the set target. 1977 Davis Leadership means persuasion on others to enthusiastically chase for certain target. 1982 Morphet, Johns Reller Leadership means, in the social system, the individual action, behavior, faith and target are influenced by the others under volunteer cooperation. 1986 Richards Engle Leadership is about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. 1990 Sergiovanni Leadership means the leader satisfies the staffs demand by use of consultation, negotiation and compromise so that the staff trades his work for rewards. 1990 Jacobs Jaques Leadership helps others to strive and to enhance aspiration to achieve the target. 1993 Robbins Leadership is the ability to influence the group to achieve the target. 1994 Yukl Leadership is the process of influence on the subordinate, in which the subordinate is inspired to achieve the target, the group is maintained in cooperation, and the established mission is accomplished, and the support from external group is obtained. 2001 Northouse Leadership is exchanged relationship between leader and subordinate. 2003 Fry Leadership means use of leading strategy to offer inspiring motive and to enhance the staffs potential for growth and development. Table 1: Definition of Leadership After reviewing studies on leadership theory conducted in the past, it is generally divided into four periods: Traits theory in 1930s It focuses on the innate leadership qualities and competence. These innate qualities are not found in others. The so-called quality can be divided into physiological and mental aspects. The physiological aspect includes: height, weight, looks, and vigor while the mental aspect includes intelligence, confidence, and aggressiveness etc. Stogdill (1948) proposed twelve leadership related studies and was considered as representative of this period. Behavioral theory from late 1940s to late 1960s It believes that a leader will be able to achieve ideal organizational efficiency if he demonstrates effective leadership behaviors. These leadership behaviors may be trained or learned through experience. Actual behavior or leadership styles are emphasized. Representative research is conducted in Ohio State University. Ohio State University proposed considerationand initiating structure of leadership behaviors. Consideration is a behavior that focuses on strengthening relationship with subordinates based on their needs and perceptions, while initiating structure is a behavior that focuses on subordinate performance in goal accomplishment. Contingency theory in late 1960s: This theory states that there is no set of optimum leadership model in this world and that it depends on the situation encountered. Situational leadership theory began its development subsequently. It states that leaders need to adopt the most optimum leadership style based on different organizational situations. Among which, Fiedlers contingency theory (1967) is most well-known. Contemporary leadership theory since 1970s: The viewpoint of contemporary leadership theory states that leadership is a type of interactive process with the environment. Bass Avolio (1990) proposed transactional leadership and transformation leadership : Transactional leadership: Encouraging subordinates through incentive establishment. In other words, incentive elicits work performance. Transactional leadership is the basis for most leadership theories. It focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and the subordinate (Fry, 2003 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºNorthouse, 2001); transformation leadershipto enhance staffs trust and respect for leader by altering intrinsic work value and faith of staff at the same time in order to elicit work capabilities. Because charisma is viewed as an essential element, transformation leader provides incentives for subordinates, enhance subordinate potential and development. (Fry, 2003); and Charismatic leadership theory refers to the followers perception toward certain behaviors of the leader as being heroic or extraordinary. 2.2. Personality Charateristics Personality characteristic means ones psychological and physical phenomenon. At different time and condition, it adapts to different environment by unique behavioral mode and thinking method. Friedman Rosenman (1959) categorize personality characteristics into type A and B. Type A shows exuberant ambition and aggression. Type B has more patience and pays less attention to competition and sense of achievement. Definitions of personality characteristic were summarized as shown into table 2. Year Author Definition of Personality Characteristic 1959 Guilford Personality characteristic is a combination of individual trait and property, which generates a lasting and special characteristic different from the others. 1961 Allport Personality means dynamic behavior from psychological and physical aspect to adapt to the environment. 1970 Pervin Personality represents structure and dynamics from reaction to the environment. 1972 Scott Mitchell Personality is formed from accumulation of psychological growth and development. 1998 Robbins Personality is ones reaction to the others and consequence of interaction with others. 1985 Lee Personality characteristic means psychological attributes of affection and thought among people; its also a specific and lasting behavioral pattern. 1997 Lu The formation of personality is affected by gene, culture, environment, and social factor. Table 2 Definitions of Personality Characteristic 2.3. Empirical Studies The verification researches made by the domestic and foreign scholars on leadership, job stress, personality characteristic and turnover intention are described as follows: In research of leader behavior and job stress, Fleishman (1964) found that consideration in the leader behavior has negative connection with the job stress, while the initiating structure is positively connected with job stress; In research of leader behavior and turnover intention, Fleishman Harris (1962) in the study of the influence of various leadership types on turnover rate and complaint rate found that consideration for the subordinates is negatively connected with the turnover, while the initiating structure is positively connected with turnover; In research of job stress and turnover intention, Parasuraman Alutto (1984) in the research on 217 employees at the food manufacturing company indicated that job stress had positive connection with turnover intention; In research of personality characteristics and job stress, Chang (1998) chose employees of Taiwan Sugar Company as research subject and indicated that those with type A personality characteristic had higher perception of job stress and shew more physical and psychological discomfort reactions; In research of personality characteristics and turnover intention, Chang (2003) released 260 questionnaires to 11 schools and revealed that personality characteristics had no significant impact on turnover intention. The relevant empirical researches were listed in table 3. Author Year Sample Empirical Result Hsu 1986 222 operators of China Steel Company. In leadership method, consideration has significantly negative connection with job stress, but the initiating structure has apparently positive connection with job stress. For overall , leadership is negatively connected with job stress. Huang 1984 207 engineers of a RD institute Consideration leadership has negative connection with turnover. Ke 1989 217 employees of 105 companies In leader behavior, consideration has negative connection with turnover intention and the initiating structure is negatively connected with turnover intention. Parasuraman Alutto 1984 217 employees of food manufacturing company Job stress has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Tzeng 1994 Employees of 12 five-star hotels in Taipei Job stress is positively connected with turnover intention. Tzeng 2001 180 high-tech industry and 255 traditional industry People with A-type personality characteristics perceive job stress more serious while, those who with B-type perceive the least. Chang 1998 All inland employees of Taiwan Sugar Company People with more A-type personality characteristics perceive higher extent of job stress and also higher improper reaction physically and psychologically. Wang 1990 Employees from 95 gas stations at 23 cities People with A-type personality characteristics have significantly higher job stress than those of people with B-type. Chiu 1994 2,400 employees of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. People with A-type personality characteristics perceive more anxiety, disconsolation, low self-respect than those people with B-type, yet the overall job stress does not reach significant level. Chang 2003 260 contractual personnel at 11 schools The research result finds that personality characteristics has no evident influence on turnover intention. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research result indicates no significant variance between male and female on job stress. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office Age is positively connected with job stress. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Age has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Single people feel higher job stress than the married ones. Chen 1997 Employees of enterprises in mid of Taiwan Married people perceive more disconsolate job stress than single ones. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Turnover intention of single people is higher than that of married ones. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research found turnover intention difference between female and male is not evident. Chuang 2000 Research of job stress and job satisfaction on 174 high-tech employees Workers seniority has positive connection with job stress. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Workers seniority has negative connection with job stress. Table 3 Empirical Research 2.4. Job Stress Job stress means improper occupational stress or burden that badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself (Kroes, 1974). Peng (1998) states that psychological stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but a handling method or relationship; it is the interaction between the individual and the environment, which gains or consumes resources of human behavior and endangers the individual health. When the individual feels job stress, it usually comes along with following symptoms: Psychological aspect passive, disconsolate, anxious and anger; physical aspect imbalance incretion, headache, sleepless and disturbed; Behavioral aspect change of living behavior, decrease of job involvement, absence from work, and turnover. The definitions of various authors were summarized in table 4. Year Author Definition of Job Stress 1956 Seley Stress means uncertain reaction of the body to demand, and also basic demand from internal or external environment, or reaction result against threat of balance condition. 1971 French Stress is the consequence that an individuals ability or skills fail to coordinate with the job or the job environment cannot satisfy the individual demand. 1974 Kroes Stress is improper occupational pressure or burden which badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself. 1978 Beehr Newman Stress is the change that drives the worker from normal psychological and physical condition. 1980 Ivancevich Matteson Stress is some adaptive reaction, a consequence of special psychological or physical demand from the event, and such reaction takes personal character as intermediary. 1984 Fleming et al. Stress is a conceptualized process and contains ones recognition and reaction to danger or threat. 1985 Jamal Stress is ones reaction against threat in the working environment. 1998 Peng The psychology claims that job stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but some handling method or relationship. Table 4 Definition of Job Stress 3.0. The effects of leadership style on stress outcomes. Transactional versus Transformational Leadership. 3.1. Transactional Leadership Basss (1998) Very many Leadership Model discusses 3 leadership styles:1: transactional, 2:laissez-faire, and 3:transformational. A fundamental feature of transactional leadership is the social exchange procedure. There are 3 appearances of transactional leadership: contingent reward, management by exception-active, and management by exception-passive. Contingent reward leadership engrosses establishing worker expectancies of rewards (e.g., financial compensation or public praise) for good acting. Management by exception-active leadership is distinguished by actively watching subordinate departures from performance standards. These leaders inspire subordinates by encouraging them to preserve established performance standards and avoid making errors. I case performance differences are detected, the leader will get involved and make the compulsory corrections. Vice versa to the active form, passive management by exception leaders do not actively monitor performance deviations but rather wait to be notified of performance deviations. After that upon recognition of a performance departure, the leader will intervene. My literature review focuses only on the active form of management by exception, and all future suggestions to management by exception leadership are in orientation to the active structure of management by exception. Ghee Soon Lim, (2004) transactional leaders focus on the present and do well at keeping the organization running smoothly and efficiently. They are good at traditional management functions such as planning and budgeting and generally focus on the impersonal aspects of job performance. Transactional leaders can be quite effective. By clarifying expectations, leaders help build followers confidence. In addition, satisfying the needs of subordinates may improve productivity and morale. Transactional leaders maintain stability within the organization rather than promote change. Transactional skills are important for all leaders. In todays world, where organizational success often depends on continuous change, effective leaders also use a different approach. 3.2. Transformational Leadership Comparing with transactional leaders, transformational leaders request to the motivational, emotional, and developmental needs of their followers (Bass, 1998). Transformational leadership is distinguished by four elements: inspirational motivation (the ability to naturally easily motivate and request to someones emotions), idealized influence (the ability to obtain respect from others), individualized support (the ability to support followers sole developmental needs), and intellectual stimulation (the ability to stimulate followers desire to learn and develop) (Bass, 1998). Transformational leaders give power to employees through emotional requests (Yukl, 1998) and may alter the frame stressful situations as chances for growth at the same time as providing the necessary maintain throughout the performance procedure (Bass, 1998; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). Research has displayed that transformational leaders are successful leaders (Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, Mackenzie Bommer, 1996; Yammarino, Spangler Bass, 1993). On the other hand, most leadership study has used correlation data to scan how certain leadership styles relate to act and other minor variables, as a result numerous researchers called for increased use of testing in leadership research (Brown Lord, 1999; Kirkpatrick Locke, 1996). There are some empirical study where leadership styles (notably charismatic styles) have been operated (Cherulnik, Donley, 2001; Bono Ilies, 2006), so far few studies have tested whether those manipulations effect in changes in objective task performance. Because of their higher visioning, support, and potential for alter the framing of stressful situations as chances, it is expected that transformational leaders will improve followers task performance throughout stressful tasks. 3.3. Evaluation transformational and transactional leadership styles and their influence on individuals performance on a stressful task. In my literature review I tried to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership style impacts more positively individuals performance on a stressful tasks and overall followers performance. First of all analyzing transformational and transactional leadership styles, basically Leadership style may determine the effectiveness of customer service training and deployment. Tichy and Devanna (1986) suggest that both transformational and transactional leadership are both effective leadership styles. Tosi (1982) also agrees. Transactional leaders lead to low follower satisfaction, while encouraging maintenance of the status quo (Bass et al., 1987). Likewise, transactional leaders find success by focusing on task-oriented exchange relationships to achieve success in attaining goals. Transformational leaders lead change-usually on greater levels of the organization and follower of transformational leaders are generally more committed and dedicated to the leader and goals of the organization. (Bass, 1985; Tichy Devanna, 1986). Transformational leaders articulate a vision for a future of their organization, while at the same time intellectually stimulate subordinates and focus on differences among people (Yammarino Bass, 1990). Furthermore, transformational leadership is based on the personal values, beliefs, and qualities of the leader rather than on an exchange process between leaders and followers. In addition transformational leadership differs from transactional leadership in some areas. Firstly, Transformational leadership develops followers into leaders, means followers are given greater freedom to control their own behavior. Transformational leadership rallies people around a mission and defines the boundaries within which followers can operate in relative freedom to accomplish organizational goals. Secondly, transformational leader pays attention to each individuals need for growth and development. Therefore, the leader sets examples and assigns tasks not only to meet immediate needs but also to elevate followers needs and abilities to higher level and link them to the organizations mission. Transformational leaders change followers so that they are empowered to change the organization. Thirdly, transformational leaders motivate people to do more than originally expected. Followers admire these leaders, want to identify with them, and have a high degree of trust in them. Transformational leaders motivates people not just to follow the leader personally but also to believe in the need for change and be willing to make personal sacrifices for the greater purpose. Fourthly, the most significant role of the transformational leader may be to find a vision for the organization that is significantly better than the old one and to enlist others in sharing the dream. Change can occur only when people have a sense of purpose as well as a desirable picture of where the organization is going. Without vision, there can be no transformation. Whereas transactional leaders promote stability, transformational leaders create significant change in followers as well as in organizations. Leaders can learn to be transformational as well as transactional. Effective leaders exhibit both transactional and transformational leadership patterns. They accentuate not only their abilities to build a vision and empower and energize others, but also the transactional skills of designing structures, control systems, and reward systems that can help people achieve the vision.(Marfred F.R. Kets De Vries, 1998) 4.0. Conclusion We live in an period of time where leadership symbolizes a emotional, developmental, and motivational part of organizational achievement; thats why a range of subordinate results/outcomes are important things to consider when we evaluate leadership successfulness. Having looked thoroughly through all the studies examined to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership styles impacts positively on individuals performances on a stressful task, and also when taking into account social support, efficiency beliefs, negative emotions. For example, One of this kind of experimental examine was held and that experiment took part 240 (two hindered forty) participants, they are watched video instructions for a stressful task. The experimental study provided evidence that transformational leadership is advantageous not only for performance, but also when considering effectiveness beliefs, social support, stress assessments, and negative emotions. Leaders of the future are encountered/faced with heavy challenges. Leaders must be clever at influencing followers motivational, emotional, and developmental needs in the stressful circumstance of present work. This kind of changes in the focus of modern leadership successfulness requires that leadership explorers go after suit and need consider a wider range of unpredictable outcomes in leadership research. In addition I would like also add that Transformational leaders, with their excellent arsenal of inspirational motivation, Individualized support, idealized influence and intellectual stimulation have to meet these challenges of in our day and those of the upcoming future.

Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero :: Epic of Beowulf Essay

Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero An epic is a long narrative poem on a serious subject. It usually is about the adventures of a hero. The hero is usually a figure of high social status and one who is often of great historical or legendary importance. In the epic poem "Beowulf", Beowulf is the hero. He shows that he is a great man by always putting other things before his own needs. He is important and needed by his people and is known by many as a courageous and helpful person. Beowulf is a good example of a courageous and strong hero. He shows all of the qualities and traits that a true hero possesses. Beowulf is a very brave and courageous person. His actions toward the monster Grendel that was terrorizing the Danes show that he is willing to help others. In an epic it is usually found that the hero often determines the fate of a nation or group of people. Beowulf has definitely helped the Danes and his own people the Geats in their triumph over evil by killing Grendel his mom and the dragon. He has helped mankind a great deal and because of that he is made king of the Geats. Beowulf^Ã’s brave deeds and accomplishments have contributed to the Danes and the Geats survival. Another characteristic of and epic poem is that the hero performs outrageous and sometimes superhuman deeds. Beowulf is a prime example of this type of hero. He volunteers himself to fight Grendel and when Grendel^Ã’s mom seeks revenge he goes to the lake and takes on the challenge. He shows the great qualities of strength and power when, after fifty years, he takes on the dragon who has become a threat to the Geats. He always battles his enemies with pride. When Beowulf and wiglaf fight the dragon and everyone else becomes cowardly and runs off to the forest and hides. Through this it is shown that they possess courageous traits and are genuinely ready and willing to help. Often in an epic poem, the plot is complicated by supernatural beings and events. Good examples of this are when Beowulf fights Grendel. Grendel is a monster and there is no such thing as a monster. The same goes for the dragon. Throughout history there has never been a dragon that gets mad that a thief has taken part of his treasure. Also when Beowulf is dying he asks Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero :: Epic of Beowulf Essay Beowulf: A Courageous and Strong Hero An epic is a long narrative poem on a serious subject. It usually is about the adventures of a hero. The hero is usually a figure of high social status and one who is often of great historical or legendary importance. In the epic poem "Beowulf", Beowulf is the hero. He shows that he is a great man by always putting other things before his own needs. He is important and needed by his people and is known by many as a courageous and helpful person. Beowulf is a good example of a courageous and strong hero. He shows all of the qualities and traits that a true hero possesses. Beowulf is a very brave and courageous person. His actions toward the monster Grendel that was terrorizing the Danes show that he is willing to help others. In an epic it is usually found that the hero often determines the fate of a nation or group of people. Beowulf has definitely helped the Danes and his own people the Geats in their triumph over evil by killing Grendel his mom and the dragon. He has helped mankind a great deal and because of that he is made king of the Geats. Beowulf^Ã’s brave deeds and accomplishments have contributed to the Danes and the Geats survival. Another characteristic of and epic poem is that the hero performs outrageous and sometimes superhuman deeds. Beowulf is a prime example of this type of hero. He volunteers himself to fight Grendel and when Grendel^Ã’s mom seeks revenge he goes to the lake and takes on the challenge. He shows the great qualities of strength and power when, after fifty years, he takes on the dragon who has become a threat to the Geats. He always battles his enemies with pride. When Beowulf and wiglaf fight the dragon and everyone else becomes cowardly and runs off to the forest and hides. Through this it is shown that they possess courageous traits and are genuinely ready and willing to help. Often in an epic poem, the plot is complicated by supernatural beings and events. Good examples of this are when Beowulf fights Grendel. Grendel is a monster and there is no such thing as a monster. The same goes for the dragon. Throughout history there has never been a dragon that gets mad that a thief has taken part of his treasure. Also when Beowulf is dying he asks